
Qass. 

Book,.. C> <c>. 



■3'2-^Y> 



A SHORT HANDBOOK- 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY 



ENGLISH, ANGLO-SAXON, FRISIAN, FLEMISH OR DUTCH, 

LOW OR PLATT DUTCH, HIGH DUTCH OR GERMAN, 

DANISH, SWEDISH, ICELANDIC, LATIN, ITALIAN, FRENCH, SPANISH, 

AND PORTUGUESE TONGUES. 



A SHORT HANDBOOK 



COMPAEATIYE PHILOLOGY 



ENGLISH, ANGLO-SAXON, FRISIAN, FLEMISH OR DUTCH, 

LOW OR PLATT DUTCH, HIGH DUTCH OR GERMAN, 

DANISH, SWEDISH, ICELANDIC, LATIN, ITALIAN, FRENCH, 

SPANISH, AND PORTUGUESE TONGUES. 



HYDE CLAEKE, D.C.L., 

AUTHOR OF A NEW AtTD COMPKEHENSIVE DICTIONAET OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE; OF ANGLO- 
SAXON HISTORY, ILLUSTRATED BY TOPOGRAPHICAL NOMENCLATDEE ; AND OF A 
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE, SPOKEN AND WRITTEN. 




tuhn: 

JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBOEK 

MDCCCLIX. 



^ 



(.'i> 



t^ 



PRINTED BY W. H. COX, 

5. Great QrsEN Stkeet, Lincoln's Inn Fiel»s 



PREFACE. 



's'many friends hav.e, wished that the Treatise on Gomparatlve '] 

Philology, which begins my English Grammar, should be ij 

printed in a separate form^ Mr. Weale has caused this ; 

Edition to be published. Should this prove acceptable, I hope ! 

to have the opportunity of extending the work. -\ 

i 

HYDE CLARKE, 

August, 1858. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. 

Classification of Indo-Germanic Languages, page 1. 

Table of the Changes into English of Words from Anglo-Saxon ; Frisian ; 
Flemish ; Low Dutch, Low German, or Flat Dutch ; High Dutch or 
High German ; Danish ; Swedish and Icelandic, 8. 

Table of the Changes of Letters from a Word of Latin Root into Italiar. 
Spanish, Portuguese, and French, 16. 

Changes of Italian Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Spanish, an^ 
Portuguese, 19. 

Changes of Spanish Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Portuguese, and 

Italian, 20. 
Changes of Portuguese Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Spanish 

and Italian, 20. 
Changes of French Words into English, 21. 
Comparative Philology of Anglo-Saxon Roots, 23. 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLO&Y, 



Speechknowledge, or Philology, is one of the branches of Folkknowledge, 
or Ethnology. Folkknowledge shows ns the several stocks to which man- 
kind belong; Speechknowledge, their several ways of speech and the laws 
which these follow. These branches of learning have only lately sprung np, 
and are still in their youth. It is, however, now well enough known that 
all mankind belong to several great stocks or families of races, as the Indo- 
European, the Chinese, the Syro-Arabian, the Americo-Indian ; and each of 
these is again further divided. Thus, under the Indo-European come the 
Germanic, the Slavonic, the Celtic, and other great families. The Germanic 
stock again includes or brings together the English, High Dutch, and Scan- 
dinavian. The Celtic stock includes the Welsh, Irish, Manx, and Breton. 

Commonly, the classification for Speechknowledge is the same as for Folk- 
knowledge ; but it does not follow that those who speak the same tongue 
belong to the same stock. Thus, there are Welsh and Irish who speak 
English, and Bretons who speak French. The groundwork of the classifi- 
cation, however, being taken from the stock or race to which the tongue 
belongs, it is needful to say something of Folkknowledge, so far as it throws 
light upon the subject we have in hand. 
The leading great stocks in Europe are the following :— 

iNDO-EuaopEAN ; as English, Welsh, Irish, French, Russians, Gipseys. 
Ugro-Tartarian or Finnish ; as Magyars, Fins, Laps, Basques. 
TunKisH ; as Turks. 
Stro- Arabian ; as Jews. 
The Indo-European is the greatest of these, and the mightiest in the world, although 
more souls belong to the Chinese stock. The Indo-Europeans reach from Burmah through 
Western Asia, spreading over Europe and further throughout North and South America ; 
and the European branches are thus divided : — 
Germanic : Anglo-Suevian . . English, Americo-English, 

Old Saxons, Burgundians, GotJis, Vandals, Jutes, 

Longheards, Danes. 
Frisians of Frieseland, Heligoland, and Jutland. 
' Netherlanders, Hollanders, and Flemings. 

Low Dutch Low Dutch, or Germans. 

High Dutch .... High Dutch, or Gennans. 

German Swiss. 
Scandinavians ..Danes and Noi*wegians. 
Swedes. 
Icelanders. 

Celtic : Welsh Welsh of Wales. 

Old Cornish. 
Bretons of Brittany. 

Irish Irish of Ireland. 

Irish or Erse of the Scotch Highlands 
Manx of the Isle of Man. 
B 



^ GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUB. 

Mixed Celto Roman : Italian Italians. 

French French, Canadians. 

French Swiss. 

Savoyards. 
Iherian Spaniards, Americo-Spaniards. 

Portuguese, Brazilians. 

Sicilians. 

Sardinians. 

WaUach Wallachians. 

Heij,enic: Hellenic Greeks. 

Albanian Albanians. 

Armenian Armenians. ' 

Slavonic : Chekh Chekhs or Bohemians. 

Slovaks of Hungary. 

Poles. 
Russ Russians. 

Slavonians. 

Croats. 
Lithuanic Lithuanians. 

The leading Uving tongues belonging to the Germanic stock are the English, Frisian, 
Netherlandish or Flemish (sometimes called Dutch), High Dutch (sometimes called Ger- 
man), Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic. These again may be thus classified :— 
Anglo-Suevian. .English 
Frisian. 

Low Dutch Flemish or Netherlandish. 

Low Dutch or Piatt Dutch. 

High Dutch High Dutch. 

NorvSE , . Danish or Norwegian. 

Swedish. 
Icelandic. 

These islands seem to have been first settled by the great Euskardian or Iberian stock, 
belonging to the Ugro-Tartarian, and which once spread over Western Europe, and of which 
aU that is left are the Basques in Spain, unless the Fins of several kinds are likewise to be 
reckoned, and unless in the west of Ireland some Iberian blood still Ungers under the name 
of Spanish, as the common belief there is. The Iberians were slaughtered or driven out of 
Britain by the Celts ; but in the time of the Romans, the Silures, in South Wales, stUl iiad a 
Spanish look, as Tacitus tells us. The Celts were yielding before inroads of the Belgians in 
Britain and Ireland, when the Romans made themselves masters of the islands, and for atime 
stayed the downfall of the Celts In the fifth century after Christ, however, the Roman 
might tottered, the German! rushed on the Roman empire and swept all before them. In 
these islands the Celts threw off the Roman yoke, but not long to hold the sway ; for the 
Northern Gennani, of English kin, came over the North Sea and began to settle on the east- 
em shore, slowly spreading themselves till aU the islands feU under their yoke. 

In the Roman time the Saxons and Frisians who were on the west side of Jutland, made 
their iirst mroads, and hence the Celts called aU the Germanic comers Saxons, as the WeM,- 
Irish, and Highlanders do to this day. The Frisians, Saxons, and Jutes seem to have been 
among the first who made good their landing, and set up the commonwealths of Kent, of the 
Soutkrick or Sun-ey, of the East, Middle, South, and West Saxons, and of Wight. The 
English, however, passing from their seat in the east of Jutland to the west, soon took the 
leadership, and the names of the other Germani were lost in theirs, giving to the land, folk, 
speech, and laws, the name of English. The English, Warings, and Frisians, were very 
near akin, their speech much alike, and their laws the same, so that they readily mingled 
together in these islands, as they did in Russia. The old or first Danes seem to have been 
near akin to the English, as were the Jutes, Vandals, and Bructwara ; and all of these had 
more or less shp.re in the first settlement. Under the name of English, aU England, to the 
noith of the Thames, and up to the Highlands of Wales and Scotland, was filled by them, 
the leading commonwealths being those of the North and South Folk of East English, of 
Lindsey. of the Wiccii, of the Middle English or Mercians, of Bernicia and Deiri in North- 
■umberland, of Cumberland, and Lothian. 

It seems very Ukely that English sea-kings were among the first who seated themselves on 
the shores of South Wales, Anglesea, Scotland, and Ireland ; their settlements, like those in 
England, being afterwards taken by the Northmen or Scandinavians. 

Note.— The Frisians, who speak much lUce the West Somerseters, stUl hold themselves 
as our kinsmen, and the likeness of the two tongues is well shown in their common saying : — 

Good butter and good cheqse, 
Is good English and good Freese. 

Some of Shakspeare's plays have been put into Frisian almost word for word. 



PIIILOLOGV. 3 

Mr. Halbertsma, in Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Wordbook, gives the following song of the 
Countess of Blessington in English and in Land-Frisian :— 

What art thou, life? Hwat bist dou, libben? 

A weary strife len wirch stribjen 

Of pain, care, and sorrow; Fen pine, noed (1) in soarch ; 

Long hours of grief, Lange oeren fen smerte 

And joys how brief! In nochten ho koart ! 

That vanish the morrow. Det fordwine (2) de moarns, 

Death, what are thou, Dead, hwat bist dou. 

To whom all bow, Ta hwaem alien buwgje, 

From sceptred Idng to slave ? Fen de scepterde kening ta de slawe ? 

The last, best friend, De listste, bseste freon. 

Our cares to end, Om uws soargen to einjen. 

Thy empire's in the grave. Dyn gebiet (3) is yngt grajf. 

When all have fled Wenneer se alien binne fled 

Thou giv'st a bed, Jouwst do ien bsed. 

Wherein we calmly sleep; Wser wy kalm yn sliepe; 

The wounds all healed, De wotinen alle hele. 

The dim eyes sealed, De digerige eagen segele, 

That long did walie and weep ! Dy lang diene wekje in gepje. 

(1) Need. (2) Dwindle. (3) From bid to command. 
It is much to be wished the Frisian tongue were better known here. 
Note.— The Anglo-Suevians were as much akin as the Southrons, Northumbrians, Low- 
landers, Ulstermen, and New Englanders now are ; and the old settlements were made as 
the new ones are. The leading folk, or the folk to which the leaders belonged, gave name 
to the settlement. Thus, Kent is said to have been settled by the Jutes, though there is no 
ground for believing that there were no other English and that Jutes only held Kent, inasmuch 
as Hengist and Horsa are claimed as Frisians. Thus, Middlesex is named after the Saxons, 
though there must have been as many other English as Saxons. Thus, Russia is named 
after the Russians or Russian Warings, though Nestor witnesses that their brethren, the Old 
English, were like sharers in the work. The Imperial Guard of the Emperors of Byzantium . 
was called Waranghian or Baraggoi, though of later years the warriors were mostly Eng- 
lish. Thus, Ulster is said to have been planted by the Scotch Lowlanders, and California, 
by the Americans, Although we read of commonwealths in England, named after Jutes 
Saxons, and Enghsh, we must not think that these differed in kindred, speech, or laws, ov' 
that they are to be understood as anything else but English, any more than we are to think 
that Belfast is peopled with Scotch Lowlanders only, San Francisco with New Englanders, 
and Sydney with Enghsh, differing in nationality and in tongue. 

Wherever the English settled, the British Celts were slaughtered, and English blood and 
speech held the mastery, as they do indeed to this day. While, however, our forefathers 
were making a new England here, a shadow came over Germania. The best of the Ger- 
manic folk, the Enghsh, Warings, Franks, Vandals, Goths, Bm'gundians, and Longbeards, 
had left their homes to fasten on the Roman empire ; in the south the lower tribes only were 
left, from whom have sprung the High Dutch or Germans of this day ; on the east the Slavo- 
nians rushed forward ; from the north the Scandinavians, who became known as Northmen 
and Danes. Stopped on the shores of the Elbe by the hosts of the Frankish kings, the North- 
men sent their ships over the North Sea to these shores, and the English, who bad sunk 
imder the yoke of monkery, yielded before them, and thus for a long time the Northmen 
held sway here. Hence it happens that among the East English, and to the north of Trent 
as far as the Highlands and north-east shores of Scotland, Danish blood and English are 
much mixed together, and the speech has likewise a mingling of Scandinavian. 

In the year 1 066, William the Norman, having made good his claim to the kingdom, brought 
in a great many Normans and Flemings, and likewise some French, and thus French words 
and sayings were mingled Avith the English tongue ; but in time the Normans and Fi^ench 
died off, so that it is hard now to find a man even of Nonnan name, and harder still one of 
Norman blood, although French words stiU. have a great share in the English tongue. 

It will be seen that the Enghsh, that is, those of that blood dwelling in England, the Lowlands 
of Scotland and Ulster, and in their settlements in America or New England, and in New 
Holland, are the offspring of the Enghsh kindred stocks, the Enghsh, Warings, Hunsings, 
Fiisians, Flemings, Vandals, Jutes, Saxons, Bructwara, Old Danes, and Northmen, unmi'n- 
gled either with British, Celtic, or French blood. Not so, however, their speech ; although 
the root and groundwork of it are English ynth hardly a word of Welsh or Irish, yet it is 
greatly overlaid with French and Latin ; and so far does this go, that often a Latin or French 
word has driven out the Enghsh one. 

On the new birth of learning, Latin and Greek were so much followed, that the home 
tongues were lost sight of. Latin words were not only poured into French and Spanish, 
but Into Enghsh, Flemish, Low Dutch, and High Dutch, to their great hann ; and eveiything 
was tmsted and set to a Latin or Greek standard, utterly thoughtless how far such might 
be right, and utterly careless whether English or Flemish had a standard of its owti. In 



4 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 

the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, Latinism had full sway 
over the English tongue, nor has it wholly lost it in this. In the last century, the Hol- 
landers and High Dutch freed their tongues from Latinisms by bringing back or making 
words of home stock. Among ourselves our speech would have been utterly lost had it not 
been that imder the Latin sway, as under the Norman sway, and imder the Danish sway, 
the great body of the English, holding to their own speech, kept it alive against the men 
of learning. 

The history of the English tongue is to be looked at on two sides : on 
one side we miist follow up English by itself; on the other, its foreign foes. 

From the very birt^ of its learning, EngUsh had to struggle with the foreigner; for the 
Roman and Celtic chix-ohmen and teachers wrote in Latin, and warped Enghsh to a Latin 
mould. Already, , t(a:r, in those days High Dutch had begun to work evil, for English 
churchmen going oyer to the Rhineland and to Paris, were led to imitate some of the 
High Dutch biblical writings. The Danish kings, too, were followed by Norse scalds, who 
wrought as much evil to Enghsh learning, as some time after did the French troubadours. 
Much of what is called Anglo-Saxon is a medley of High Dutch, Scandinavian, and Latin, 
and is no more to be looked upon as pure English than the -ivritings of the Anglo-Norman 
time. We cannot, therefore, take written English-Saxon as a good standard, or as the only 
standard. Another hindrance to it is, that many words spoken in the Anglo-Saxon times 
still live in the Enghsh tongue, which were never written down. 

What more than anything kept Enghsh ahve before the Anglo-Norman time, was the 
many open meetings in which the common business was carried on. Each township was a 
commonwealth in itself, made its own laws, and held in its hands hfe and death. In the 
himdred motes the men of neighbouring townships met once a month ; and further, from 
time to time, folkmotes of the shires and commonwealths were held. Our fathers had no 
lawyers and no lawbooks; everything was done openly, and by word of mouth, until the 
churchmen set down land sales in writing and in books, got grants of lands from the weak 
monk-kings, and took seats in the hundred and shire-motes. 

In the Anglo-Norman time, the day of the scalds was at an end, and that of the trou- 
badours began. The courtiers spoke' French, and the learned Latin, while written Anglo- 
Saxon, or more truly speaking Norse-Enghsh, died off. The folkmotes had been strangled 
by the wiles of the Noraian chmxhmen and lawyers, but the towngmlds were still alive, 
and after a time they had a great share in bringing Enghsh again into use as a written 
tongue. Slowly English, which, for all that French knights and Italian monks had done, 
had never died in the gi-eat towns, nor in the smaU hamlets, became the common tongue 
in the new parliament, which was set up instead of the folkmotes, and in the juries and 
law coui-ts, for which the townsliips and hundreds had to give way. While Anglo-Normanism 
died away, sturdy English rose up. So, too, the might of the Roman bishop was shaken ; 
monks began to preach in Enghsh, Wicklif and other priests to write. Thus, when printing 
cam.e to give a new birth to learning, England had already shaken off the yoke of the 
foreigner, and our mother-tongue once more held sway throughout the isle. 

It is noW; however, needful to speak of something else which, in the 
meanwhile, had wrought greatly on the English tongue. In its old shape, 
as spoken by our forefathers when they first came here, and which is com- 
monly called English Saxon, it was not the same as now, for nouns and 
verbs made their changes of meaning by changes of the endings of the words, 
and not by prepositions or auxiliary or helping words; thus, eye, eye's — eyes, 
eyes' — made in English Saxon eage, eagan; and in the plural, eagan (nomina- 
tive), eag-um (dative), eag-ene (genitive). What was the beginning of the 
great change, no one can tell, though it is one of the most wonderful within 
the bounds of knowledge, for it has happened not only between Anglo-Saxon 
and English, but between most old and new tongues, as Hellenic Greek 
and Eomaic, Old Persian and New Persian, Old Frisian and New Frisian, 
without any working of one on another, or indeed any common ground of 
operation being as yet found out, though the end is alike to ail. 

Hence we find the English tongue under these shapes: — 1. Old English 
or English Saxon. 2. Danish English. 3. Norman English. 4. New Eng- 
lish. The latter again is spoken in several ways, called dialects ; as South- 
ern or London, nicknamed Cockney ; West Saxon or Somerset ; Exmoor; 
Wilts ; East English or Norfolk ; Derbyshire ; Lancashire ; Cheshire ; 
Northumbrian ; Yoi-kshire ; Craven ; Scotch of the West Lowlands, East 
Lowlands, and Aberdeen ; Orkney ; Welsh ; Highland ; Irish ; American ; 
Polynesian ; Negro ; Chinese. The Southern, Ainerican or New England, 



PHILOLOGY. 6 

and "West Saxon dialects are the most English ; the Welsh, Highland, and 
some of the Irish dialects have a Celtic leaning ; and many of the other 
dialects named are mingled with Scandinavian. 

The southern dialects having been long spoken by a great body of the Eng- 
lish, from among whom the great English writers and thinkers have sprang, 
have been those which have taken the lead, and from them has been made 
the English tongue as written, and as commonly acknowledged. It is south 
of Trent we find the birth-towns of Shakspeare, Spenser, Milton, Dryuen, 
Pope, Byron, De Foe, Fielding, Bacon, Locke, and Newton ; it is in their 
southern tongue the masterworks have been written, a-ad the great states- 
men of the land have spoken. It is in this tongue we m ist seek the liviug 
law of the English speech, the lex et norma loquendi. We cannot seek it 
in Anglo-Saxon writings ; there we find foreign words, dead and long lost 
shapes, seldom more than the seeds of the new tongue, with many words 
wanting. We cannot seek it in Lowland or in Norihumbrian; for though 
sometimes we may find English words elsewhere lost, yet we likewise find 
that English words have given way to Danish. We cannot seek the living 
law of English speech in the works of our "writers, however great, knowing, 
as we do, that whatever the might of their thoughts, their words were often 
sought from heathen springs, not always from "the well of English un- 
defiled." 

If, too, we bear in mind what has too commonly been forgotten, that 
grammar is not only the law of writing,* but the law of speaking, and that 
great as is the spell of our writers, and most in these days of newspapers, 
greater is that of speakers m all times over the enlightened freemen of Eng- 
land and the United States, we shall see that gramma,r should rather look 
to the living for its models than to the dead. The shape of man keeps the 
same for thousands of years ; the Negro, the Arab, or the Nubian, as drawn 
on the pyramiids, is he of this day; but the speech of man is ever shifting; 
and writers, however skilful, however great, however mighty, will be left 
behind, while the swelling tide bears on. It has been shown how much 
English has shifted from its Anglo-Saxon shape, but even in our day there 
are those alive who have heard many ways of speaking among us ; and so 
throughout Europe. Thus, in France there are those who have heard the 
vowel a called by the old men aw, which is now made ah. To lay down a 
settled law for speech is hard at any time, but it becomes still more so if we 
look to written and not to living authorities. 

If we are to take the written tongue as our model, we must then see by whom 
it is written. In our list of writers we find Lowlanders, Scotchmen, Irish- 
men, Hollanders, Dutchmen, Jews, and Parsees, some of whose works beam 
with the brightest gifts of mind, but, however freely written, show some blot 
which jars on our English ear. We can, indeed, hardly take up even a Lon- 
don or New York newspaper without finding, side by side with thorough 
English, writings in which that shibboleth of shall and will marks out to us 
the handling of one to our speech unborn. If, indeed, our tongue could be . 
taught in schools in a few months by books and masters, as well as from the 
mother's lips and by the work of years, if ours were a tongue narrowed like 
the French by set academic laws, or laid down by act of parliament or con- 
gress, it would be easily learned, and we could as freely take every writer 
as a sound master as we can take every man to be a working citizen. But 
looking at English as it is, we must seek its laws among those to whom it 
is a living birthright. 

* The higher kinds of writing, the poena and the play, come rather nnder the law of the 
spoken than of the written tongue, so that tlie spoken tongue is by far the weightier- 



b GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 

It may be as •well to say a few words as to Lowland or Broad Scotch. The speech, Hkc 
the men, had its beginning with those who took the best blood of England into the Lothians, 
and heretofore it was as open to our northern brethren as to the Southrons, the Northum- 
brians, the men of Kent, or the Somersetshire folk, to set up their speech as the standard 
of English ; but now this is too late, Southern Enghsh has taken the lead, and the Lowlanders 
must follow our standard, as we might have have had to follow theirs. In so far, Lowland 
is no longer the language, but a dialect. 

The NewEnglanders had an English beginning, and thereby fuE birthright in the English 
tongaie ; but we can no longer look to them as having the same right to be taken as a 
standard. In the last fifty years, millions of High Dutch and Irish have been poured into 
the United States, and a great many Spaniards, French, and Netherlanders have likewise 
been taken into citizenship, and thus a large foreign population, in a state of transition, is 
mixed up -with the New Englanders. In England only can we, at this time, seek the heart 
of the English race ; and while to the New Englanders the full meed must be given which 
is owing to them, we cannot take from them a standard. On the other hand, we cannot 
ask them to take eveiything which is om-s ; they have as good a right as we to keep old 
words and to make new ones. Many, too, of these we have taken fi-om them, and they from 
us ; but neither can set up the right of blotting out words which the other takes. We are 
too ready to stamp words as Americanisms or Tanlceeisms, which are good Enghsh; they, 
however, are as ready to forget, that words given to us by our fathers are not " obsolete " 
from being no longer spoken on the other side of the wide sea. The great Webster has, in 
his Dictionary, carried out a work for which aU Enghshmen must be beholden to him, and 
those of New England the more so, inasmuch as he has most praiseworthily recorded every- 
thing which a dweller in America has a right to look for ; yet even he, Avho twice crossed 
the Atlantic to tliis island, and spent fifty years in his toil, has marked as "obsolete," or as 
"not in use," numbers of words which have never gone out of use. This great man was 
nevertheless very earnest in the endeavour to uphold our mother-tongue, and in no way to 
weaken the old standards. 

The new English takes several shapes as it becomes more or less mingled 
with other tongues. It is well enough known that in speaking we bring in 
other words from what we do in writing ; a working man will have a set of 
words more English Saxon than the newspaper writer or set speaker, who 
seeks more after French or Latin. Again, in writing there may be more or 
less Latin or French, or even High Dutch; and of each of these, several kinds 
or styles. 

The styles may be thus set forth : — 1st. English, as of Eang Alfred, much 
of the Bible, De Foe, Cobbett. 2nd. French English, as of Chaucer, Spen- 
ser, Dryden, Pope. 3rd. Latin English, as of Ben Jonson, part of the 
New Testament, Milton, Johnson. 4th. High Dutch English, as of Carlyle. 

In this day, the leaning is less to Latin and more to Enghsh; and newspaper writing and 
public speaking, being freer and less stilted, have done much to bring back the Enghsh 
tongue to its old and common shape. Within the last hundred years it was thought grand 
and fine to v.'oi'k up long Latin and French, or even Greek words, and %'Tilgar, as indeed 
it was, to use common English words. With a better knowledge of the laws of speech, 
T/ith the gro-wth indeed of this new kind of learning, a healthier feehng has arisen; and 
although Germanism or High Dutch has had sway with some, and Scandinavianism with 
others, yet it is becoming known that the Enghsh tongue has, like others, its own words, 
its own framework, and its own laws, and can take its stand by itself, as Enghsh learning 
and Enghsh glory can. 

In this work, the spoken tongue is taken as the standard rather than the 
written tongue, and, of the spoken tongue, that which is spoken by the 
southern and midland English, and by the New Englanders. Further, it 
has been thought right to look to the English or English- Saxon element 
throughout, rather than to the Scandinavian, the High Dutch, the French, 
the Latin, or the Greek. In settling what is English, those tongues which 
are akin to English, as Frisian and Flemish, have been taken rather than 
Scandinavian or High Dutch, which are foreign tongues, or even before 
English Saxon or Gotkic, as moulded by the High Dutch writers. 

Men of the greatest learning who have dealt with English grammar have 
taken every other path than that here followed; the kindred tongues have 
been shunned, for unhappily there is now little knowledge in England of 
Frisian or Netherlandish, while the High Dutch have been taken as leaders 



PHILOLOGY. 



7 



on the asstunption tliat they are the Germani fiom whom we and all others 
have sprung, or that as they have written much, so are they the most learned. 
In this day it may be held as settled, that High Dutch is a stem by it- 
self of the Germanic, as is Scandinavian ; and by the High Dutch and the 
Scandinavians it is acknowledged that English does not belong to the stem 
of either, but stands alone; and from this groundwork we must start. 



COMPAEATIYE PHILOLOGY. 

Comparative Philology is that branch of Speechknowledge or Philology 
which considers the likeness or unlikeness of words in the several tongues, 
as Comparative Anatomy does the anatomy of the several living beings. 

The words of the English tongue, as already said, are mostly of Germanic 
or of Latin root, and therefore give a groundwork by which an Englishman 
may help himself in learning the European tongues of these stocks, with the 
grammars of which this English Grammar makes part of a series. Yv^ater 
is in Anglo-Saxon waster, in Flemish water, in High Dutch wasser, in 
Danish vater, and in Swedish vaten; all these words being much alike. 
Admiration is in Latin admiratio, in French admiration, in Italian admira- 
zione, in Spanish admiracion, and in Portuguese admiragao. 

By knowing the laws by which the changes of letters in these words are 
made, we can make other words in these tongues from English words, or we 
can turn those words into English. Thus : — 



English. 


Latin. 


French. 


Italian. 


., Spanish. 


Portuguese. 


admiration 


admiratio 


admiration 


admirazione 


admiracion 


admira9ao 


a,Tiimatioii 


animatio 


animation 


animazione 


animacion 


anima^So 


combination 


combinatio 


combination 


combtnazione 


combinacion 


combinacSo 


disposition 


dispositio 


disposition 


disposizione 


disposicion 


dispoBi9So 


revolution 


revolutio 


reyoltition 


revoluzione 


revolucion 


reYolu9ao 


consolation 


consolatio 


consolation 


consolazione 


consolacion 


conaola9ao 


condition 


conditio 


condition 


condizione 


condicion 


condi9ao 


resolution 


resolutio 


resolution 


resoluzione 


resolucion 


re3olu9ao 


Thus witli Higli Dutch or 


German:— 












waier 


wasser 










fooi5 


fuss 










nu^ 


nuss 










whi^e 


weiss ^ 










swee^ 


suss 







The kindred between the Indo-European tongues will be seen by the foWoynag:— Anglo- 
Saxon, fether, mother, sunu, brother; English, father, mother, son, brother; Frisian, feder, 
moder, sun ; Flemish, Netherlandish or Nether Dutch, vader, moeder, zoon, broeder ; Gothic, 
arta, modur, sunus, brothar; Swedish and Danish, fader, moder, son, broder; Icelandic, 
fader, mooder, sunr, broder; High Dutch or German, vater, mutter, sohn, bmder. [The 
above are Germanic] Zend, paitar, matar, bratar; Persian, pader, mader, fersend, brader; 
Bokharese, petar, mader, farsend, birader; Pehlvi, abider, amider, berur; Ossetinian, tider, 
dade, mad, firt, arwad; Koordor Kurd, baw (father), brah (brother). [The foregoing are 
Persian.] Sanskrit, pita, mata, suna, bhrater; Bengalee, pita, mata, shaleea, bhaee; Hin- 
dostanee, pita, mader, furzund, biradur. [The foregoing are Indian. ] Arjnenian, hair, mair ; 
Albanian or Skipetar, ba, mama; Old Greek, pater, meter; Romaic or Modern Greek, pateras, 
matera; f.atin or Old Roman, pater, mater, frater; Italian, padre, madre, fratello ; Spanish, 
padre, madre; Portuguese, pai, mai; French, -pere, mere, frere; WaUachian, tato, muma, 
frate. [The foregoing are of the Helleno-Roman family.] Welsh, tad, ma.m, 'bm-wd; Corn- 
ish, taz, mam, bredar; Breton, tat, mam, breur; Irish, athair, mathair, bhrathair; Erse or 
Irish of the Scotch Highlands, athair, mathair, brathair; Manx, moir, braar. [These are 
Celtic] Russian, Qshezy, mat, sunn, brat; Slavish, bat, mater, syn, brat; Polish, ojciec, 
matka, syn, brat; Bohemian or Czech, otzie, sin; Lithuanian, moter, sunus. [These are 
Slavonian.] 

The minute changes in all these tongues are only of interest or import- 
ance to philologists ; but in the Germanic and Latin tongues it is most 
useful for the student to know them, and they are therefore here given. 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 









^ W 






fel|)|> 



5^ ^o- ^ 



cS I &; cf f^ 1 1^ 






^1 



•^ feS 



^B i ^ t i 



^t^^ 



- -^ kJ"-^ 









S ^ 






SS3 



■i^^ 
i;^ s 



I ^' 









SL 

-.'»>'; 



^ 1 <!. 






rij 'o 



_2 ^ S ,« ^si^^^sS ^' 



1^ 






1^ 



e. Cii 



|feq.. 






s « s 



-§ -^ 



i E 1 SS5^ -§ 



Lt 



cq 03" 



A4 rl^rO 






1 r'" ^ S fl 






^ 



ol^^-^l^f 



"G o o o f^ 53 



^ <1 .', 









5^ S 
<3l ^W. 



-S £ r=l 



pq S Q^'Q.s2i^§Q|^ 






COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



■3 3 















1^1 



^ >> .r-! O 



^-§^ 






g fSr§ 

■^ '^ ^ 



Ci I ^"^ g q I § 



I. 



^1 






f^ 









i^'^'^r'^tl 






^g f^ 



^ a a g) -i 






^•d 



^^-g s 



o^ 



(D JH O 

':^ i 












a^ 1-^^", 



'^^^^ 

"O 00 03 

.S'o S 

<a -2 (D 




10 



GRAMilAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



;§ ft^ 



^nm 

^S% ^b'^^ 



-^ fc,i: a,^ ^^;^'^^| 



&;^i3' 





















m IS 



^1 






-fe ^ ^ ^ ft 






? 03 



" '5 ■ 



-2 y -S 



C3 

^ ft 






^H r-1 



^■^g..<sg> ^.> 






^^ 



1^ » 



3 ^' 









II 



if^. 






^§,^^5 






;1 :« 



gig 









I ^ ^ ft S ^ ? S 



^■^^a- 



1 



^8 



I; « •- ^ 



=-.:3 



a) P fS Si »ri (D ; 









'^ ^ rC kj "^ 






41 


o 8 . 


^11 


fe^ f.gl ft, ^ 


%^ 


^■g;^ ^ 


u 




m 


tw 






fT" 


■^^s 


wi.. 


^'•S'S 



§1 












^^ 



r— " ^-'2 O 53 fT tM -+0 






c ^ ^a 



g .2 g 

•° a fl-^ 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



11 



KJ S 









N .S. S "Sb 



'■^ ^^ ^^1^^ tq 



fcD 



el 



I I 

-3 "S 



^.^^S 












, S5j cs « :o3 



1^ 






1^1 



1^1 I ^i 



s .a.. 






o3 o c« r; •Cob 






^ •^, 



S:a § 



i ;3 fi j^- S J 



^1 



^a 



2 a 



3 ^ 






f^ § -^ ^. -< ^ 






'B ^ 






S tu si s 









o 

faD 



^ n. -M S 















S^ K^l, 









^s 



o 

p. 



Si" S^i 



o --? 



^ -3 



^.. 






^1^^^ 



^g 









2 ^ 






I-^CU- 









1 ^ r-T 



"ti .1—1' 






I^ rt"« 






12 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



^.^.^I^ll^l^ ^U^ l^r^i 1^ 



^r^ 



^ 



3 -2° gg- _2^ -a § 2 •§ 3 









^o to 



a ^m3M.G.2.<n"2mi2 ftoatS 

as^ss-s^.2.s<s-s s '35' 



1 , . .^ii^ii 



fciO 



w ^tg ^fcC § tfi ,= M -2 Ph p. m < 



cS 



I 6 «2, II ll ^1 I 111 

aga'gsl5?,ilsgSi.S'i& 



I 



I 



■S^ 









COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 




§ 



s 



ft? &s 



a ^ 



^ ^ 



CD to «0 



€ I Si? 



^^ 52fe 



-g ^ 



13 



6Q CQ 









B 



pi. pi. B ^ 






§ ^£ 



^r1! 


% 


^1 


^i 


•3 <« 




•a si) 


^ 


<a 




fe rt 


§5 






iV^c^, Rh 
dunckel, mar 

Rh,Rg 
serge, mark 
morgen 


§ 




II 


1 






gg 


Cq o 


a« 


E 

hemd, sc 

-Sche 
flasche 


^1 


S3 &C 


Rh 
erk 

Rh 

rg, murk 
orgen 


i 


11 


a . 


hulder 

Sh, Sch 

ken, flesch 


«| 


^ « 5Q § 


a ga 


g 


!§ 


g § 




g Sb 






rij a ?^s| 



a 2Q 



III Etif^l^i-^^^ 



•s & 






bt> P^ 



aa 



^ 



53 



'S &2 






fall 



t^^^ 



^^ 



a :gg j?^ 

^ raw OQ GO 



H 



^1 






"I 



3^2 



«^ 



t ll 



G? 



1« 






I 11 -is 



o^-s-S 



^ &CC 



14 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE, 



I 



Jig 






^ L 

^-^s-^ 



,la 






1 1 



^ CQ p- 5v| -^ -T 

S •? :^- 1 






•II 






-t3 

CM c 






2QiS 



^^ J§.S" 












a 



^^ be 






1=! 



m m ts N 



Js 2 



^ 















a .a -S -a N a 



O q 












^StrS 



I 






1 ^^8 ■ 

2 ^ 



3 ^ 



3 

i 



^ ^ ^ ^ .s" ^ 






^1 



!- ff> 









II 



II a.2. 









^s ^ 









:^ o 



15 § 



^53 =5: 



a <5C 53 



feq ^ 






H-5 

cj o 



oa -4J ■ 



oa c3^ ."t; =i_2 ts2 S? ^ 1^ 



^ 

^.1. 

^lll= 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



15 



mo 



n hBcS 



fe.^"- 



^1 




1 




. 


^? 


^1 


^1 











is 

B 






-d c3:o 



SQ'. 



^1 



■d o C 
.So C 



tej-s 



o^ o 



._3 



s^^a^in^?>.^;- ^ 



b^^, ^ 



123 



fe: 



a s s" 



^1 1 




^ k 


bogen, 

w 

weiss, 


"^11 ""iSl 


"ill 



051 






1^1 I I 






s H -^ . 






^11! 
pi i> d 



bq^ ^^ig ^ 



w o p 



a -3 






g^ 



"a P o 



N 1 



ti<^% 



83 o ^ 

H 1> o3 
bCO Pt 






^^fe 




16 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



Table of the Changes of Letters from a Word of Latin Eoot 
INTO Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. 



Latin. 


Italian. 


Spanish. 


Portuguese. 


French. 


An 














causa, Cauda 


cosa, coda 


cosa, cola 


cosa 


chose 


auricula 


oreccMo 


oreja 




oreille 


B 


V 


V 


B 


V 


habere 


awere 




haver 


avoir 


mirabile 


maraviglia 


maravilla 




merveUle 


Bl 


Bi 


Bl 


Br 


Bl 




bianco 




branco 


Wane 


C 


c 


G 


G 


Mute 


dico, locus 


loco 


digo, lugar 


digo, lugar 


dis, Ueu 


amicus, macer 


amico 


amigo, magro 


amigo 


ami, maigre 


acer, vessica 


vessica 


bexiga 


bexiga 


aigre, vessie 


c 


c 


Qu 




Ch 


causa, carus 


cosa, caro 


querido 




chose, cher 


C hetween ) 
two vowels \ 




Mute 


Mute 


Mute 


oculus, focus 


occMo 


ojo 


olho 

Z 

fazer, plazer 


ceil, feu 


facere, placere 






faire, plaire 






Z 




S 


vicinus, vices 


vicino 


vezino, vezes 




voisin 


Ch 




C 




Ch 


chirurgicus 




cirujano 




chirurgien 




C, G 


a 


G 


c 


stomachus 


stomaco 


cstomago 


estomago 


estomac 


lachryma 


lagrima 


lagryma 

Qu 


lagryma 




Merarchia 




gerarquia 






CI 


CM 


LI 


Ch 


CI 


clavis, clamare 


chiave, chiamare 


llave, Uamar 


chave, chamar 


clef 






Gl 


Gr 


Gl 


ecclesia, ecloga 


cMesa 


iglesia, egloga 


igreja 
Cr 


egUse 


clavis 






crave 




Cr 




Gr 




Cr 

crier 


Ct 


tt 


Ch 


T 


It 


factus, doctus 


fatto, dotto 


heclio 


feito, douto 


fait 


noctes, pectus 


notte, petto 


noches, pecho 


noites, peito 


nuits, poitrine 


octo, strictus 


otto 


echo, estrecho 


oito 


huit, etroit 


D 


D 


L 


L 


D 


odor, Cauda 


odore, coda 


olor, cola 




odeur 


judicare 


giudicare 




julgar 








Mute 


Mute 


Mute 


judex, radix 


giudice, radice 


juiz, raiz 


juez 


juge 


audire, laudabilia 




oir, loable 

z 

juzgar 




ouir, louable 


judicare 


giudicare 




juger 


E 


E 


le 




E 


ventus, centum 
equa 


vento, cento 


viento, ciento 

Ye 

yegua 




vent, cent 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



17 



Latin. 


Italian. 


Spanish. 


Portuguese. 


French. 


F 


F 


H 


F 


F 


filius, facere 


figlio, facere 


hijo, hacer 


fiUio. fazer 


fils, faire 


fendere 




hender 




fendre 


Fl 


Fi 


LI 


Fl 


Fl 


flamma 


fiamma 


llamado 


Lh 


flamme 


G- 




J 




G 


cMnirgicus 




cirujano 
H 


Mute 


chirurgien 


gelare, germanua 


helar, herman 


irmao 








Y 






gelo 




yelo 




gele 


Gl 


Gh 




Gr 




glandus 


ghiando 






gland 


Gn 


Gn 


N 


Nh 


Gn 


lignum 


ligno 


leQo 
Yn 






regnum 


regno 


reyno 


reinho 


regue 


H 




G 




H 


Merarchia 


Mute 


gerarquia 




hierarchie 


homo 


uomo 


Y 




homme 


hedra, herba 


erba 


yedra, yerba 




herbe 


J 


Gi 


J 






juyenis 


giovaue 
Mute 


joven 
G 






majestas 


maesta 


magestad 




majeste 




Ggi 


Y 




G 


jugulare, ilajor 


maggiore 


yugular, mayor 






jacens 




yacente 




gisant 


L between 


Gl 


J 


Lh 


11 


two votvels 










'filius, allium 


figlio, aglio 


nijo, ajo, aguja 


fiUio, aUio, aguUia fils, an, aiguille 






LI 


Lh 


L 


humlliare 


umigliare 


humillar 
G 


humiHiar 


humilier 


mulier, alienus 


mogliere 


muger, ageno 


molher 

I 
aguia 




aquUa 


aquila 


aguila 


aigle 






R 


E, 




nobilis, cigala 


cicala 


cigarra 


nobre 


noble, cigale 


Lt 


Lt 


Ch 


It 


Ut 


multus, culteUum molto, colteUo 


mucho, cuchiUo 


muito 


couteau 


auscultare 




escuchar 




ecouter 


L before a 








TJ 


consonant 










palpebra 


palpebra 


palpebra 




paupiere, coutean 


culteUum 










M 


M 


Mbr 


M 


Mm 


homo, nomen 


uomo, nome 


hombre, nombre 


homem 


homme 


femina 




hembre 




femme 






Mb- 


-Mb- 


-Mb- 


cumulare 




comblar 


comblar 


combler 


numerus 






nombre 


nombre ' 



iff 



18 



GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE, 



Latin, 


Italian. 


Spanish. 


Portuguese. 


French. 


Mm 




Mn, Nm 




Mm 


lemma 




lemna, Inmense 




lemme, immense 


Mph 


m 


Nf 






lympha, nymplia 




iinfa, ninfa 






N 


N 


N 


M 




bonus, mius, bene buono, uno 


bueno, uno 


bom, bum, bem 


bon, un, bien 


-N- 






Ac, Id 


In 


panis, rnsTius 


pane, mano 


pan, mano 


pao, mao 


pain, main 


planus 


pieno 
L 


lleno 


cheio 


plein 


Tenenum 


veleno 


veneno 






Ng 








Nd 


pingere, fingere 








peindre, ceindre 


3migere 








joindre 





Uo 


Ue 





Eu 


bonns, novus 


buono, nuoYO 


bueno, nuevo 


bom, noTO 


neuf, seul 


solus, populua 




suelo, pueblo 


POTO 


peuple 






TJ 


U 


leu 


locus 




lugar 
Hue 


lugar 


lieu 
Hm 


ovum, 03, osU'aia 


osso 


huevo, liueso 




hujtre 


oleum 


oglio 






buile 


(E 


E 


le 




le 


ccBlum 




cielo 




del 


P 


P 


B 


B 


P 


lupus, opus 


opera 
V 


lobo, obra 


lobo 


loup 
V 


recipere, sapere 


ricevere 


recebir, saber 


receber, saber 


recevoir, oenvre 


apertus 




ifibierto 
Y 




savolr, ouvert 


sapor, populua 




savor 


povo 


saveur 


P] 


Pi 


LI 


Ch 


PI 


plenus, plumbum pieno, piombo 


, lleno, llomo 


cbeio, cbumbo 


plein, plomb 








Pr 








Plata 


prata 




Ph 


F 


F 




Ph 


phalanx 


falange 


falange 




phalange 


Q 


Ch 


c 


Q 


Q , 


quis, qualitas 


cbe 


calidad 

z 


quem, qualidad 


qui, qualite 


iaqueus 




lazo 








Cq 


G 


G 


Mvte 


aqua, sequere 


acqua 


agua, siguii 


agoa 


eau 

G 

aigle 


aquila 




aguila 


aguia 










V 


sequere 








suivre 


E 


L 


L 


L 


L 


periculum 




peligro 






cerebrum 




celebro 






peregrinus 


pellegrino 






pelerin 


marmor 




marmo^ 






papyrum 
sinceritas, practica 


papel 
platica 


slncdeia 




career 




carcel 







COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



Id 



Latin. 


Italian. 


Spanish, 


Portuguese. 


French. 


S 
scribere, status 


s 

scrivere 


Es 
escribir, estado 


Es 
escrever 


E 

6cx-ire, etat 


Sc 
scutum, scribere 


Sc 
scudo, scrivere 


Esc 
escudo, escribir 


Esc 


Ec 

6cu, ecrire 


Sp 
sperare 

Ss 
vessica 


Ss 
vessica 


X 

bexiga 


X 

bexiga 


Esp 

fesperer 

Ss 
vessie 


St 
bestia, status 


St 
stato 


Est 
estado 


Est 
estado 


T, Et 
bete, etat 


T 

mutus 


D 


D 

mudo 


D 

mudo 


T 

muet 


pater, mater 
frater 


padre, madre 


padre 


Mute 
pai, mai 


Mute 
p^e.m.re 


T between ) 
two vowels ) 
sacerdotium 


z 

sacerdozio 


c 

sacerdocio 


c 

sacerdocio 


G 

sacerdoce 


portio 


porzione 


porcion 


C 

por9ao 


portion 


ratio 


razione 


racion 


Z 

razgo 


raison 


u 

lucrum, aqua 


- 




logro 




agoa 




viduus 


Y 

viuvo 






F 

veuf 


unus 






Hu 

hum 


un 


V 
vessica, ^iduus 


V 

vessica 


B 

bexiga, biudo 


B 

bexiga 


V 

vessie, veuf 


vices, novus 




vezes, novo 




F 

fois, neuf 


X 

lux, pax, crux 


Ce 
luce, pace, cruce 


Z 

luz, paz, cruz 


Z 

luz, paz, cruz 


X 

paix, croix 


maximus 
exercltatus 


Ss 
massimo 
esercitato 


Ch 






phalanx 


Ge 

falange 


Ge 

falange 




Ge 

phalange 



Changes op Italian Irregular 1 betters into Latin, French, Spanish, 
AND Portuguese. 



Ital 


Latin. 


Fr. 


Span. 


Port 


Ital 


Latin. 


Fr. 


Span. 


Port 


Bi 


Bl 


Bl 


Bl 


Br 


Gl 


L 


L 


J 


Lh 


Ce 


X 




Z 


Z 


L 


B 


Lr 


L,R 


L,R 


Ch 


C,Qu 


Qu 


c 


C,Qu 


Nf 


Mph 


Mph 


W 




Chi 


a 


CI 


LI 


Ch 





Au, U, Ho 


Au 




_ 


Cq 


Q 


— 


G 


G 


Pi 


PI 


PI 


LI 


Ch 


D 


T 


T 


D 


D 


Ss,S 


X 


X 


X 


X 


P 


Ph 


Ph 


F 


Ph 


Tt 


ct 


it 


ch 


U 


Fi 


Fl 


Fl 


LI 


Fl 


Uo 


0,Eo 


Ho 


Ve, Hw 


Ge 


X 


Ge 


Ge 





V 


P 


V 


B 


B 


Ghi 


Gl 


Gl 


Gl 


Gl,Gr 




B 





V 


B 


Gi 


J 


J 


J 


J 


z 


T 


C,T 


c 


C,C,Z 



20 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



Changes op Spanish Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Portu- 
guese, AND Italian. 



i"" 


. Latin. 


Ft. 


Port, 


Italian. 


Span 


. Latin. Fr. 


Port. 


Italian. 


P 


P 


B 


F 




Fl Fl 


Fl 


Fi 


c 


T, Qu, Ch 


T, Qu, Ch Qu 


Ch 




PI PI 


Ch 


Pi 


Ch 


ct, X, It 


it 


it 


tt, ce 


Mhr 


M Mm 


M 


M 


D 


T 


T 


T 


D 


Mn 


Mm Mm 


Mm 


Mm 


Es 


S 


E,E 


Es 


S 


N,yn 


Gn Gn 


Nh 


Gn 


F 


Ph 


Ph 


Ph 


F 


Nf 


Mph Mph 





Nf 


G 


C,L,H, ChCQ 


G,Lh,nC,Gl,n 


Nm 


Mm Mm 


Mm 


Mm 




/, Qm 


— 


G 


cq 





Au 








Gl 


CI 


CI, Gl 


Gr 


Gh 


Q 


C Ch 


Q 


C 


Gr 


Cr 


Cr 


Gr 


Gr 


R 


L L 


R 


L 


H 


F, G 


F, G 


F 


F 


U,Ue 








TJo, U 


Hue 














V 


B,P B 


Y 


B 


le 


(E,E 


E 


E 


E 


X 


Ss — 


Ss 





J 


L, Ch, 


L 


Lh 


Gl, Ch, C 


Y 


G,J G,J 




Gi 


L 


D,R 


D,L 


D,L 


D,L 


Ye 


H,E H 


H 


E 


LI 


CI 


CI 


Ch 


Chi 


Z 


X, Qu, C,DX,S 


Z 


Ce 



Changes of Portuguese Irregular Letters into Latin, French, 
Spanish, and Italian. 



Port. Latin. 


Fr. Span. 


Ital. 


Port. 


Latin. Fr. 


Span. ItaL 


A N 


N N 




N 


L 


R,L 


R,D 


L 


R,D 


B V 


V B 




V 


Lh 


L 


L 


J 


Gl 


Br Bl 


Bl Bl 




Bi 








LI 


Fi 


Ch CI 


CI LI 




Chi 


Nh 


Gn 


Gn 


N 


Gn 


PI 


PI LI 




Pi 





U,Au U,AuO 





Cr CI 


CI LI 




Chi 


Pr 


PI 


PI 


LI 


Pi 


D T 


T B 




T 


R 


L 


L 


R, 


L I 


Es S 


E,E Es 




S 


T 


X,ct 


it 


Ch 


Ce,lt 


G Q, Ch 


C C 




Cq 


U 











— 


C 


— G 




C 


X 


Ss 





X 


S 


Gr CI, Gl 


CI, Gl LI 




GM 


z 


C 


C 


C 


c 


Cr 


Cr Cr 




Gr 




X 


X 


z 


Ce 


Hu U 


U Ou 




u 














Changes 


OF 


Teeming 


.TioNs OF Nouns, 






Latin. 


English. 


French. 


Italian. 




Spanish. 




Portuguese. 


Prud-entia 
Clem-entia 


Prud-ence ) 
Clem-ency ) 


-ence 


-enza 




-encia 




-encia 


Liber-tas 


Liher-ty 


-te 




-ta 


{ 


-tad) 
-dadj 




-dade 


Geolog-ia 


Geolog-y 


-ie 




-ia 




-ia ^ 




-ia 


CoUeg-ia 


Colleg-e 


-e 




-ia 




-ia 




-ia 


Val-or 


Val-our 


-em 




-ore 




-or 




-or 


Un-io 


Un-ion 


-ion 




-ione 




-ion 




-iSo 


Admira-tio 


Admira-tion 


-tion 


-zione 




-cion 




-9^0 


Forti-tudo 


Fortitu-de 


-tude 


-tudine 




-dumbre 




-dSo 


Dur-itia 


Dur-ess 


-esse 


-ezza 




-eza 






Vir-tus 


Vir-tue 


-tu 




-tu 




-tud 




-tud 


Cor-pus 


Cor-ps 


-ps 




-PO 




-po 




-po 


Dat-um 


Dat-e 


-e 




_o 




-o 




-0 


Ima-go 
Mar-go 


Ima-ge ) 
Mar-gin \ 


-ge 




-gine 




-gen 




-gem 




Pass-age 


-age 


-aggio 




-aje 




-agem 


Oma-mentum 


Oma-ment 


-ment 


-mente 




-miento 




-mento 


Glo-ria 


Glo-ry 


-ire 




-ria 




-ria 




-ria 


Mus-ica 


Mus-ic 


-ique 


-ica 




-ica 




-ica 


Changes of Terminations of 


Adjectives 


AND Adverbs. 


Admira-bilis 


Admira-ble 


-We 




-bile 




-bel 




-vel 


Vigila-ns 


Vigila-nt \ 


-nt 




-nte 




-nte 




-nte 


Prude-ns 


Pnide-nt ) 
















Rigor-osus 


Rigor-ous 


-eux 


-oso 




-oso 




-oso 


Simi-laris 


Simi-lar 


-lier 


-lare 




-lar 




-lar 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



21 



Latin. 


English. French. 


Italian. 


Spanish. Portuguese 


Sincer-us 


Sincer-e -e 


-0 


-0 


-0 


Nati-vus 


Nati 


-re -f 


-vo 


-vo 


-vo 




Radical-ly -ment 


-mente 


-mente -mente 


Sacerdota-lis 


Sacerdota-1 -1 


-le 


-1 


-1 


Academi-cus 


Academi-c -que 


-co 


-co 


-co 






Changes of Terminations of Verbs. 


Condu-cere 


Condu-ce -ire 


-cere 


-Izer -izer 




Changes of French Words into English. 


French. 




English. 


French. 




English. 


A prefix 




Ad 


E 




I,Ie 


avancer, avocat 




advance, advocate 


chef; ach^ver, encre 


chie^ achieve, ink 






En 


E prefix 




En 


attrapper, affaibUr 


entrap, enfeeble 


eir 




enlarge 


A 




Au 


E 




At, Ot 


vanter, chanter 




vaunt, chaunt 


pere, mere 




father, mother 


tante 




aunt 


frere 




brother 


A 




As 


E prefix 




Mute 


mat, pate, pate 




mast, paste, pasty- 


gpingle, epreuve. 


etain 


pin, proof, tin 


platre, hater 




plaster, hasten 


E final 




T 


Ant final 




-Ing 


liberte, gaietg 




liberty, gaiety 


degoutant 




disgusting 


E, E 




S 


Ai 




Ea, Ee 


epargner, epeler 




spare, spell 


aise, plaire, paix 


ease, please, peace 


epouse, etoUe, fete 


spouse, star, feast 


pair, clair, maigre 


peer, clear, meagre 


bete 




beast 


faible 




feeble 


Eau 




El, Eal 


Au, Ou 




Aul, El, Al, 01 


pinceau, ciseau, veau 


pencU, chisel, veal 


faute, faux, veau 


fault, false, veal 


vaisseau 




vessel 


ciseau, satimon 
ichafaud 




chisel, salmon 
scaffold 


Ec, Ecli 




Esc, Sc 








echapper, echeUe 


escape, scale 


B 




P 


echafaud 




scaffold 


abricot 




apricot 


. Eg 
egratigner 




Sc 


c 




Ch 




scratch 


cerise, ciseau 




cherry, chisel 


--EWb final 




■Le 









bouteiUe, chandelle 


bottle, candle 


croitre, Sucre 




grow, sugar 


En prefix 




Ee, En, In 


Ch 




C, K, Ch 








chapon, chat 




capon, cat 








chandelle 




candle 


Entre 




Enter, Inter 






S, Csoft 


entretenir 




entertain 






entremediaire 




intermediar;.' 


chercher, chi^fre 


search, cipher 












Sh 


Ep 




Sp 


fraiche 




fresh 


eperon 




spur 






a 

reflect 


-'Et final 




Mute 


reflechir 




vanter, hanter 




vaunt, haunt 






Tch 

butcher 


Et 




Est, St 


boucher 




etat. etroit 




state, estate, strait 


c 




S,Sh 


Ev 




Sw 


ma(?on, fa9on 




mason, fashion 


evanouir 




awoon 


D 




T 


Eu 




Ou 


deux, dix, dent 




two, ten, tooth 


heure, fleui 




hour, flower, flour 


-D 




-St 


F 




Ph 


Hid 




nest 


faisan, chiffre 




pheasant, cipher 



22 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



French. English 
G, Gu, prefix W 
gater, guichet, guerre waste, wicket, war 
guepe wasp 


French. 
Oi 

proie, etroit, poire 

voile 


English. 
Ai, Ey, Ea 
prey, straight, pear 
veil 


G 

ahre'ger 


abridge 


On 

coupable, voute, fou 


Ul, Ool 
culpable, vault, fool 


Ger, Gir 

aMger, negliger 
exiger, agir 


a 

afflict, neglect 
exact, act 


OH 

moutarde, coutume 

P 


Us 

mustard, custom 

F 


Hui 


Oi, Oy 


pere, pied, poisson 


father, foot, fish 


huile, huitre 

I 

vide 

1 

maitre 

In 

ingrat 

-It final 

banriir, finir 


oU, oyster 

01 
void 

A 

master 

Un 
ungrateful 

-Ish 

vanish, finish 


craquer, coq, epoque 

-Re final 
ordi-e, lettre, tendre 


Oh, 0, Ch 
crack, cock, epoch 

-Er 

order, letter, tender 


encre, pretre, battre 

S 
chaise 

Sou- 
soumettre 


Mute 
ink, priest, beat 

R 

chair 

Sub- 
submit 


-Ire final 
produire, plaire 


-Ce, -Se 
produce, please 


Ss 
buisson, pousser 


Sh 
bush, push 


It final 
fait, nuit, huit 

it 


-a, GU 
fact, night, eight 

St 


T 

produit, ceiature 
nuit, huit 


a, GU 

product, cincture 

night, eight 


maitre, huitre 
paitre 


master, oyster 
pasture 


T 
trente, trois 


Th 
tliiity, three 


J 

joues 


Ch 
cheeks 


u 

croute 


Us 
crust 


jardin 


G 

garden 


Ue 

attribuer, nouer 


Ut, T 

attribute, knot 


joug, jeune, jaune 


T 

yoke, young, yellow 


V 

Fevrier 


B 

February 


L 

matelas, etoile 


R 

mattress, star 


AvTil, cuivre 


P 

April, copper 


combler 
nomhreux 


M between two 

vowels 
accumulate 
numerous 


fin, ver, vent 
\-iugt, neuve, volonte 
pouToir 


W 

•^Tine. worm, wind 
twenty, new, will 
pov>'er 


Mp 

temps 

Mpt 
compter 

m 

vent 



M 
times 

Nt 
count 

Nd, Th 

wind 

Ea 


-X 

prix, paix, voix 
croix, poix 

capricieux, vicieux 

A 

gout, gater, croiite 
Aout, coute, maitre 


-Ce, Ch, Ss 
price, peace, voice 
cro&s, pitch 

-ous 
capricious, vicious 

gw-t. waste, crust 
Aug-ust, cost, master 


oreille 


ear 


Mvie 


S 




Ou 


neige 


snow 


annoncer 
coche, approcher 


announce 

Oa 
coach, approach 


Mute, before a ] 
vowel \ 
avoir 


H 

have 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



23 



The gi-oundwork of the English tongue is the Old English, sometimes 
called Anglo-Saxon. It includes many names substantive common to the 
Indo-European tongues ; but the verbs are worked out on a distinct plan, 
peculiar to the English tongue. 

The Indo-Eiu-opean words are the names of several remarkable objects, 
as the sun, moon, star ; of the limbs of the body, mouth, eye, chin, tooth, 
heart, hair, nose, hand ; of kindred, as mother, father, son ; of numbers ; 
and of animals. 

Although the substantiyes in the several tongues are much alike, with a few only of the 
letters changed ; yet, in the verhs, and the words made from them, there is little likeness, 
inasmuch as the consonants and vowels have not the same power. Thus the Latin, being 
a mixed tongue, uses, for the EngUsh w, several letters. 



English. 

w 

win, wind, whirl, wench 


Latin. 
V 

vincore, ventus, volvo, virgo 


Greek. 
H, K 

heilo, kore 


wave, whence 


u 

unda, unde 




work, wealth, weight, whether 


P 

opus, opes, pondus 


P 

poteros 


M'et, world 


M 

madidus, mundus 




wear, wall 


T 

tero 


T 
teichos 


T 

tongue, tie, tear 


L 

lingua, ligo, laclirj-ma 


dakrua 


thiet 


F 

fur 




both, tide, shadow 


Mb 

ambo, tempus, umbra 




Th 

thou, three 


T 

tu, tres 


s 

su 


H 

hound, head 


c 

canes, caput 


K 

kuon, kephale 


hundred 


centum 


H 

hekaton 


hand, honey 


M 

manus, mel 


Ch 
cheir 


N 
many, honey, sun, son 


L 

multus, mel, sol, Alius 


L 

poUos, helios 



Many words in English are made by putting s, which mostly has the effect 
of continuing and extending the action, as to steep from to dip ; sweat from 
to wet ; to shout from to hoot ; shallow from hollow ; shaft, a long handle, 
from haft ; snout, a long nose ; steep from deep ; to starve, to die lingeringly; 
to slacken from to lag ; to smash from to mash ; still from dull ; sheaf from 



Note.— We say to melt lead for bullets; Tnelt sUver, melt iron but when the process is long, 
as in the case of the ores of the metals, which are several days in the furnace, we say smelt, 
as to smelt lead ore. to smelt silver ore, to smelt iron ore. We speak of the short haft of a 
knife, the long shaft of a spear. 

In some cases the S seems to be privative, and to give an opposite meaning, as Several 
from every; Scatter from gather; Stilt from tilt; Spill from flU; Scold from cold; Slip froia 
leap. 



24 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUB. 



Words with S continuous:- 



Scratch 


from crack 


Snout 


firtm nose 


Scar 


carve 


Snub 


knob 


Scowl 


cow 


Spatter 


patter 


Scraggy 


craggy, rocky 


Spigot 


peg 


Scramble 


ramble 


Spread 


broad, breed 


Scrunch 


crunch 


Sprightly 


bright 


Scrape 


rub 


Squash, Squeeze 


quash 


Screak 


creak 


Squat 


fat 


Scrawl 


crawl 


Squelch 


km 


Scream ) 
Screech j 




Starve 


die 


cry- 


Stave 


- heave 


Scud 


cut 


Steam 


damp 


Shaft 


haft 


Steep 


deep 


Shallow 


hoUow 


Steep 


dip 


Shave 


hew 


Stem 


dam 


Skip 


hop 


Stick 


tag, tack 


Sheaf 


heap 


Stiff 


deaf 


Shoal 


hole 


stm 


duU 


Shoot 


hit 


Stoop 


dip 


Shove 


heave 


Straddle 


tread 


Shout 


hoot 


Strain 


drain 


Shred 


read 


Stretch 


reach 


Shrivel 


rive 


Strew 


throw 


Slacken 


lag 


Stride 


tread 


Sickle 


hackle 


Strip 


drip 


Slash 


lash 


Stroll 


troll, rol 


Shght 


light 


Stumble 


tumble 


Slim 


lean 


Stump 


dump 


Slime 


lime, loam 


Stun 


thump 


sunk 


lag 


Swag 


wag 


Slaver 


lap 


Swagger 


waggle 


Sloop 


e-lope 


SwaUow 


waUow 


Sloth 


loath 


Sway 


way 


Slow 


low 


Sweat 


wet 


Slubber 


lubber 


Sweep 


whip, whiff 


Slug 


lug 


SweU 


well 


Smash 


mash 


Swelter 


welter 


Smear 


mire or mar 


Swerve 


warp 


Smelt 


melt 


Swing 


wing 


Smooth 


mow 


Swoop 


whip 


Snack 


knack 


Sword 


ward 


Snag 


knag 


Sag 


hang 


Snarl 


gnarl 


Saunter 


haunt 


Snatch 


knock 


Saw 


hew 


Sneap 


neap 


Seam 


hem 


Snap 


knap 


Seethe 


heat 


Sneeze 


nose 


Sodden 


hot 


Sniggle 


niggle 


Sift , 


heave 


Snip 


nip 


Since 


hence 



The following are other words in which the S is a prefix : Snow, Shoulder, Shirt, Short, 
Skull, Salt, Swine, Skulk, Shriek, Shower, Shrink, Shudder, Shufde, Snivel, Sorrow, Strike 
Swift, Single. 

The plural S, and the S of the second and third person singular in She loves, Thou lovest. 
He loves, have the same power of extension of meaning as in the prefix S. 

T, H, and W enter into composition at the beginning of words almost as 
freely as S, as in the following words : — 

Tackle Hackle Shackle 

Take Shake Shake 

Thread Shred 

ThriU ShriU 

Thence Hence Whence Since 

Hammer Stammer 

Tag, Tack Hang Wag Swag, Swing 

Tangle Wrangle Strangle 

Tear Shear Wear Shear 

Throw Strow 

Truckle Wriggle Struggle 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



25 



W and Wh seem to give to verbs a meaning of moving or going, as in the 
following words : — 



I 



W-ane 




drain 


rain 




pain 




W-end 


bend 


tend 


rend 


send 


end 


spend 


W-ind 


bind 




grind 






find 


W-ear 


bear 


tear 






shear 




W-ink 


bUnk 








sink 




Wh-irl 




twirl 








hurl 


Wh-et 


bite 


twit 






set 


hit 



mend 



fori 
smite 
So in Waft, Wink, Twinkle, Weld. Wield, Wing, Wreck, Wander, Wasp, Wave, Waste. 

The relation of T to S will be seen by the following words, chiefly verbs, 
as in the other examples : — 



Tear 


Shear, Share 


1 Thrill 


Shrill 


Tatter 


Shatter 


1 Tackle 


Shackle 


Thread 


Shred 


i Twig 


Switch 


Take 


Shake 


Tap 


Sap 


Tame 


Shame 


1 Twinge 


Swinge 



D seems to have a heavier effect than simple T ; as in Drip, Trip ; Drain, 
Strain; Drowse, Rouse; Drub, Rub; Doom, Tame; Dam, Stem; Draw, 
Throw. 

When D takes S before it, it makes St ; as Deep, Steep ; Damp, Steam ; Draw, Strain ; Dull, 
Still. When it takes T it makes Th, as Dew, Thaw; Deck, Thatch; Drove, Throve; Drive, 
Thrive; Drill, Thrill; Dring, Thring, Throng; Drub, Throb; Dump, Thump; Dunder, 
Thunder. 

The letter R at the beginning of words has a rough, rolling, or running 
effect, as in the following : — 



To Kap, sap, tap, whap, dip 

Rend, send, tend, wend, bend 
Rake, shake, take, wake, quake 
Rip, sip, tip, whip, chip 
Rumble, tumble, jumble 

Rough, soft, tough, gruff 



To Wriggle, tickle, giggle, boggle 
Rub, scrub, grub 
Ram, cram, jam, dam 
Wrangle, tangle, jangle, mangle 
Wrack, crack, smack 



Sh is found in the ending of verbs, giving a meaning of quickness of action, as in Clash, 
Crash, Dash, Plash, Splash, Flush (from flow). Gnash (from gnaw). Rush (from run). Quash 
from queU), Push (from put). Crush (from crack). Hash, Lash, Mash, Wash, Flash (from fly 
or flare). Trash, Slush, Thrash (from throw). Brush, Gush (from go). Most of these are 
active intransitive verbs. 

Sh at the beginning of words has an expression of division, as in Shake, Shire, Shear, 
Share, Shatter, Shred. 

Ch at the end of verbs seems to be a sign of active transitive verbs in most cases. This 

ending is found in Scratch, Pitch, Latch, Stretch, Blotch, Notch, Reach, Teach, Patch, 

Match, Watch, Snatch, Catch, Clutch, Stitch, Botch, Bleach, Quelch, T^'itch, Flinch, Pinch, 

Clinch, Drench, Stench, Blench, Staunch, Punch, Crunch. 

1 Ck has the same effect ; as Hack, Smack, Wrack, Whack. Lack, Lick, Lock, Peck, Pick, 

. ■■ Kick, Knock, Knick, Shock, Stick, Suck, Tuck, Chuck. 

G is sometimes found at the end of active intransitive verbs, as Lag, Sag, Flag, Brag, 
Cling, Swag ; but sometimes of active transitive verbs. 

The letters K, C, G, and Qu, at the beginning of words, often represent 
^' the particle Ge, and have the power of collecting together, or making more 
frequent ; Clump, to lump together ; Cram, to ram together ; Crop, all 
that is reaped ; Grumble from rumble. 



C-lash 


from 


lash 


C-lumsy 


from lumpish; 


C-rib 


from rob 


C-linch 




link 


C-lutch 


lock 


C-rumble 


a nibbing 


C-loom 




loam 


C-oop 


heap 


C-rumb 


rub 


C-lover 




leaves 


C-rack 


wrack 


C-runch 


rub 


C-log 




lock 


C-radle 


riddle 


C-rawl 


roU 


C-lown 




lout 


C-rag 


rock 


C-reak 


Tick 


C-lump 


\ 


lump 


C-raggy 


rocky 


C-rowd 


rush 


C-lub 


C-ram 


ram 


C-rinkle 


wrinkle 


C-lout 


lot 


C-rash 


rash 


C-rop 


reap 



k 



26 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



C-nunple from mmple 



G-lose from leese, lie G-ramble from mmWe 



C-rush 


rush 


G-lue 


loam, hme 


K-nit 


net 


C-oal 


holt {wooct) 


G-rapple 


rap 


K-nife 


nipper 


C-oarse 


hoai-se 


G-rare 


rive 


Q-uag 


wag 


C-oop 


heap 


G-reedy 


ready 


Q-uaff 




C-ot 


hut 


G-rim 


rough 


Q-uake 


shake 


G-lad 


lithe 


G-rind 


rub 


Q-uaver 


■waver 


G-lare 


light 


G-nih 


rub 


Queasy 


wheesy 


G-litter 


light 


G-roff 


rough 







This compound is likewise found ia Knee, Knuckle. 

iV, in composition of words, seems to have relation to a bent joint, as in ^eck, Kreee, 
Kwuckle, Ancle., Fiwger, Hand, Loiw, Kidney, Kwit, 'Knot, Jfet, ^Ying, "Wirak, Crinkle, 

Wrinkle. 

In the common English names for the parts of the body, the words are formed with N, L, 
H, R, and T, piincipahy. With J!f (nasal, referring to a twisted joint), as in iVeck, Kwee. 
Il7;rLckle, Wi«g, Ha?2d. Loi?;, Towgue; H (referring to a principal member), as in ^ead, 
Hand. ^eart. -5'ip, ^eel; T (pointing to a distinct member), as in ^ootli, Tongue, Toe, 
yhumb, Hear^, Toot. Tear ; R (in the middle of the words meaning motion, or the result oi 
motion), as Wrist, Throat, Arm, Ear, Heart. *S is an appended letter, as in <Skta, Skv.^l 
/Shoulder, /Shin; J/ is found in ^l/aiTow, J/ilk, J/ilr. and l/"outh; £ is found in several 
words, as BeUy, i?reast, ^osom, 5eard, A'ain, iJlood; L is found in several worJ-;, 
either at the beginning or elsewhere, but does not seem to have any special meaning iu 
Enghsh. 

A fancifol speculator might define Hand, a piincipal member, standing free, and haviiig 
the power of bending ; Heart, a principal member, working free or. alone, and havinp: n, 
motion ; Tongue, a single member, having the power of moving ; and so throughout th e - 
series. 

The letters in common natural objects suggest some speculations a-s to their classification. 
We have Sea, Sand; Lea, Land; Hill, Heaven, Sky, Hail; Rain, Rill, Tree, Rock; Groimd, 



s 


L 


H 


G 


T, D 


R X 


M 


.lea 


Lea 


Sky 


Groimd 


Tree 


Rain Sun 


Mother 


Sand 


Land 


Heaven 


Grass 


Star 


Rill Moon 


Mouth 


Salt 


Light 


High 


Grow 


Tliunder 


Brook, Creek Thunder 


:Man 


Sky 


Low 


Hill 


Green 


Root 


Stream Snow 


Moon 


Star 




Head 
Hail 




Day 


Rock, Crag Xight 

Rough 

Root 

Frost 





The names of many of the common animals end in English with the sound of .R ; G 
CK; D, T; and begin with A T; H; B, F, P, 31; C.K. Tlius we have Deer, Hare, Bear' 
Hog, Dog, Buck; Hound, Hart, Kid: again. Deer, Steer; Dog, Stag; and a series, as Deei^ 
dog. toad ; Hare, hog, hound ; Bear, buck. 

Xames in E, or with the affix ^,— Hare. Hog, Sow, Hind, Hart, Hotmd, Sheep, Horse, 
Hen; in Z> or T— Deer, Steer (Taurus), Dog, Stag, Duck, Drake, Doe. Toad: in 5 -Bear. 
Boar, Pig, Fox, Buck, Brock, Bug, Frog, Fly, BuU ; in J/— Mare, Midge ; in C, K—Co^ , 
Cock, Chick Colt, Cat, Goat, Kid, Grander, Goose ; and many less common names might be 
brought fonvard. 

In words from tlie same root, several shades of meanmg are given ly 
shifting the endings or vowels, and likewise by putting other letters before ; 



Blow ( blur, blurt, blot, splutter 

} blase, blast, bluster, bhght, blind 
( bloom, blush 
Bang, bend, bind 
Break, brash, burst 
Brew, breed, brood, spread 
Clap r clash, clatter, clutter 

J clam,cloom,cleave, clamp, clump, clash 
J clog, clot, cloud, cluster, cloy, clutch 
Clip (cling, cltib, climb, clamber, clinch 
Cleave, chp, clave 
£oop, keep 
Creep, ciinge, crawl, crouch, crook 



Dip ( dab, dive, steep, dew 

"I dab, daub, dabble, dash 
Do, deal, dash 
Drip, drop, droop, dribble, strip 

( Drag, di-aw, dredge, drive, drift, struggle 

( Drench, dilnk, drown 

Flee ("fleet, flit, flag 

3 flirt, flutter, fleet, flicker, flaunt 



Fly 



\ flash, flare 



Flow l^ flush, flood, float, fleet, flurry 
Flap, flop, flounce, flounder 
FUng, flinch 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



27 



Flay, flick, flaw, fleer, splay, split 

FeU, fall, fold, foul 

Gripe, grip, grapple 

Gmt), grave, grovel 

Gnaw, gnash 

Glare j glitter, glow, glimmer 

( glisten, gloom, gloat, gloar 
Go, gush 

Hit, hitch, hurt, shoot 
Heave, heap, sliove, shift 
Haul, hale, heel, halt, hold 
Jag, jar 
Kill, quell, quail, quench, quash, squeeze, 

squash, squeal 
Knick, knacli, knock, snick 
Knip, knit), knoh, snip 
Lay j lie, lag, linger, lean 

(lade, load, lump 
Lap, lick 

Let, lose, loose, leak, leave 
Lean, lend, loan 
Lift, lug 

Leap, lope (elope), slip 
Mash, maul, smack, smash 
Mow, mope, mourn 
Meet C mate, match 
•< mix, mingle 

(smite, mash, smash, smack 
Put j push, punch 
Pull ( pluck 
Pain, pine, piach 
Eun, rush, roll, reel, rustle, stroU 
Rap ^ram, scrape 
Rip < rive, strip, strap, string 
Rub (gruh, scrub 
Raise, rise, rouse 
Set, sit, seat, settle 
Shake, shy, shudder, shii-k, skulk, shock, 

shatter 
Scour, scrub, scratch, scrawl 
Shoot, shed, shut, shy, shower, sheet 
Shove, shift, shovel, shuffle 



Shear, shave, shred 

Slide, slit, sledge, sling 

Slap, shp, slop, stuff, slive, slush 

Smite, smack, smart, smash 

Sip, sop, sup 

Spit j spirt, spew, spill, spawn 

(spot, spatter, sputter 
Split, splash, splice, sphnter, splutter 
Spray, spread, sprinkle, sparkle 

spring, sprawl, sprain 
Squeeze, squash, squeal 
Stay j stop, stem, stand, stopple, staunch, st<ave 

( stick 
Step, stamp 

Strew, stray, stroll, straggle 
Stride, stretch, strain, straddle 
Streak, strike, stroke, struggle 
Strip, stripe, strap, string 
Sway ( sweep, swoop, swamp, swim 

(swing, switch, swag, sag, swerve 
Sweal j swell, swelter, sweat 

(swig, swlU 
Tap, tip, top, topple, stab 
Take, tag, tug, tackle 
Throw, thrust, thresh, thrustle, strow, stroll, 

straggle 
Throb, thrill 
Tread, tramp, trample, stride, stretch, strain, 

straddle 
Twit, twang, twitch, twinge, twinkle 
Twine, twist, f-wdrl 
Ware, ward, warn, war, worry 
Wear, waste 
Wave ( wag, waggle, waft, sway, swing, swag 

( waver, weave, warp, swerve, wash 
Wend, wind, wander 
Weep, whoop 
Whip, whap, whiff, sweep 
Wrack ("work 

J wring, wrench, wreak, wrinkle, 

j wi-iggle 

(.vnithe, wrest, wrestle 



A likeness of formation may be seen in the following roots, variously 
modified by the beginning letter : — 



Blow 
Blurt 
Blast 

Blush 
Bloom 

Bluster 



Flee, fly, flow, flare 


Clap 


Glare, glow 


Fhrt 






Fleet, flit, float 


Clot 


Gloat 


Flag 


Clog 




Flash, flush, flinch 


Clash, clinch 






Clam, doom 


Gloom 


Fling 


CUng 




Fhtter, flutter, flicker 


Clatter, clutter 


Glitter 



28 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 



S 



I i ! 1 1 



X I r« 



S I 









I I I 
I i I 



^ 



^1 












P^ 



«-§ I I I 

ri \ \ \ 



E-i ft 






"oS 'o qa 



» p, & ft g 
•T i "2 ? "2 i 



ft-7 
-co 






II <*!. ft 



&/='§'?&'§ 



&ft 

III 












III 



i.? 



s ? pi 






la 

« at 



m 






2?& 



ft ft 03 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 



29 



^ 



W 









t3 <D 

lal II li 



,q3 






i-^ on ^<-B 



III? 

-I II43 



EQ Oi la 



P,l 



J4 M 

1^ C3 



^^ 






^ c3 






^1 









5s f- 



*-i Ph t, 

^-V 45 



p fe _^ f-l ^H 4> 






30 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 

The English tongue as now spoken is made up of above one hundre<l 
thousand words. 

First : Old English words, which form the framework of the tongue. To 
these belong many of the so-called Anglo-Saxon words, and many which, 
not being found in Anglo-Saxon waitings, are thought to be Norse, Dutch, 
Eoman, French, and Italian, but which are of Gei-manic root and English 
kind, and were, by the French, Italians, and Spaniards, had from the Franks, 
Longbeards, and Goths. Some of these words have in later times become 
mixed with Latin and French forms. 

Most of the names of Englishmen and of townships are Old English. 

The English verbs are given very fully further on. 

To this Old English stock, words, which to some extent form another 
tongue, have been added. 

Second ; Some Scandinavian words, Danish, Swedish, or Icelandic, 
brought in by the Danes and Normans. It must, however, be borne in 
mind, that some of the so-called Danish words were had, by the later Danes, 
from the old Danes, who were of Suevian stock, and are therefore to be 
foimd in Frisian, Flemish, and Low Dutch. Scandinavian words are spoken 
north of Trent, and are found in the names of places. 

Third : A few words from the Latin ; as Chester, Street, and the church 
words brought in before the Norman time. 

Fourth : Many words from the Flemish, Netherlandish, and Low Dutch ; 
the Flemings, but, above all, the Hollanders, having been our masters in i 
many handicrafts. Such are words of husbandry, gardening, handicrafts, 
and seamanship. 

Fifth : A great body of Latin words, in French" form, brought in before 
the time of the Tudors, in the Tudor time, and since. 

Sixth : A number of old and new Greek words, which have been brought 
in mostly within the last hundred years, and of which many new ones are 
being yearly made by chemists, naturahsts, and other men of learning, fol- 
lowing the French way. The Spanish, Italians, and Portuguese take the 
same words ; but the High Dutch and other Germanic tongues form words 
of their own, so that nothing is, in the end, got by us in the endeavour to 
have one set of words for men of learning of all tongues. 

Seventh : Some words of each tongue in the world, as French, Pro- 
vengal, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, High Dutch, Persian, Hindostanee, 
Bengalee, Gipsey (cant words), "Welsh (mostly names of rivers), Irish, 
Euskardian (names of rivers), Turkish, Hebrew (mostly names of men and 
church words), Chaldee, Arabic, Malay, Maori, Hawaian, and Chinese. 



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OF 



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WORKS 



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AND SELF-INSTRUCTION; 

)' 

t 

) TOGETHEK WITH 

J 

;a list of works on practical science. 

3 

\ DESIGNED TO PROMOTE THE OBJECTS OF 

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For Students' use in Schools, Mechanics' Institutions, and 
others, desiring to acquire a superior method of Drawing 
and Shadowing, as practised in the best Schools of France. 



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PRACTICAL EULES ON DBAWING FOE THE OPEEATIVE BUILDEE 
AND^YOUNG STUDENT in Architecture. 

1. Practical^Eules on Drawing, Outlines. 

2. Practical Eules on Drawing, the Grrecian and Eoman Orders. 

3. Practical Eules on Light and Shade. 



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AECHITECTUEE OF MACHINEET. An Essay on Propriety of Form and 
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It has been remarked that "those who are in the ship of Science ought to 
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The only method of ayoiding this error is to confide to men who are 
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HOMER. 


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iESCHYLUS. 



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MATHEMATICS 



FOR 



PRACTICAL MEN 



A COMMON-PLACE BOOK 



PURE AND MIXED MATHEMATICS, 



DESIGNED CHIEFLY FOB, THE USE OF 



CrVIL ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, AND SURVEYORS, 



BY OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S. 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
BY HENRY LAW, 



CIVIL ENQINEEB. 



MATHEMATICS FOE PEACTICAIi MEN 



CONTENTS. 



PART I.—PUEE MATHEMATICS. 



CHAPTES I.— Arithmbjio. 
Skct. 

1. Definitions and Notation, 

2. Addition of Whole Numbers. 

3. Subtraction of Whole Numbers. 

4. Multiplication of Whole Numbers. 

5. Division of Whole Numbers. — Proof of 

the first Four Eules of Arithmetic. 

6. "^ulgar Fractions.— Reduction of Vul- 

var Fractions, — Addition and Sub- 
traction of Vulgax Fractions. — Mul- 
tiplication and Division of Vulgar 
Fractions. 

7. Decimal Fractions, — Reduction of 

Decimals. — Addition and Subtrac- 
tion of Decimals, — Multiplication 
and Division of Decimals, 

8. Complex Fractions used in the Arts 

and Commerce, — Reduction, — Addi- 
tion. — Subtraction and Multiplica- 
tion. — Division. — Duodecimaia. 

9. Po-wers and Roots. — Evolution. 

10. Proportion.— Rule of Three.— Deter- 

mination of Ptatioa. 

11. Logarithmic Arithmetic. — Use of the 

Tables. — Multiplication and Division 
by Logarithms. — Proportion, or the 
Rule of Three, by Logarithms. — 
Evolution and Involution by Log- 
arithms, 

12. Properties of Numbers. 

CHAPTER II.— ALGEB.nA. 

1. Definitions and Notation. 

2. Addition and Subtraction. 

3. Multiplication. 

4. Division. 

i,>. Involution. "^ 
0. Evolution. 

7. Surds. — Reduction. — Addition, Sub- 

traction, and Multiplication. — Di- 
vision, Involution, and Evolution. 

8. Simple Equations. — Extermination. — 

Solutjo", oi General Problems. 



9. Quadratic Equations. 
1 10. Equations in General. 

11. Progression. — Arithmetical Progres 

sion. — Geometrical Progression. 

12. Fractional and NegatJTe Exponents. 

13. Logarithms. 

14. Computation of Formulae. 

CHAPTER III.— Geometey. 

1. Definitions. 

2. Of Angles, and Right Lines, and thair 

Rectangles. 

3. Of Triangles. 

4. Of Quadrilaterals and Polygons. 

5. Of the Circle, and Inscribed and Cir- 

cumscribed Figures, 

6. Of Planes and Solids. 

7. Practical Geometry, 

CHAPTER IV,— Mensubation. 

1, "Weights and Measures,- 1. Measures 

of Length. — 2. Measures of Surface, 
■ — 3. Measures of Solidity and Ca- 
pacity. — L Measures of Weight. — 
5. Angular Measure. — 6. Measure of 
Time. — Comparison of English and 
French Weights and Measures. 

2, Mensuration of Superficies. 

3, Mensuration of Solids, 

CHAPTER v.— Trigonohetrt. 

1. Definitions and Trigonometrical For 

mulas, 

2. Trigonometrical Tables, 

3. General Propositions. 

4. Solution of the Cases of Plane Trian- 

gles. — Right-angled Plane Triangles. 

5. On the application of Trigonometry 

to Measuring Heights and Distances. 
— Determination of Heights and 
Distances by Approximate Mechani 
cal Methods. 



i^THEMATICS FOB PBACTICAL MEN. 



GHAPTEE YI.— Goin;c Sections. ] 



1. 



Definitions. 

Properties of the Ellipse.— Problems 
relating to tlie Ellipse. 

Properties of tlie Hyperbola, — Pro- 
blems relating to the Hyperbola, 

properties of the Prjabola. — Problems 
relating to the Parabola. 



CEAPTEPw YII, — Pp.o?BBTiss of 

CUSTES. 

SSCT. 

1. Definitions. 

2. The Conchoid. 
The Cissoid, 

The Cycloid and Epicycloid. 
The Quadratris. 
The Catenary.— Tables cf Relation 

of Catenarian Curves. 



PART n.— MIXED MATHE]MATICS. 



CHAPTER I.— Mechanics in Geitekal. 

CHAPTER II.— Statics. 

1. Statical Equilibrium. 

'2. Center of Grayity, 

3. General application of the Principlea 
of Statics to the EqiKlibrium of 
Structures. — Equilibrium of Piers 
or Abutments. — Pressure of Earth 
against Walls. — Thickness of Walls. 
— Equilibrium of Polygons. — Sta- 
bility of Arches. — Equiiibriura cf 
Suspension Bridges. 

CHAPTER III.— Dtkahics. 

1. General Definitions. 

i, On the General Laws cf Uniform and 
Variable Motion. — Motion uniformly 
Accelerated. — Motion of Eodies xm- 
der the Action of Gravity — Motion 
over a fixed Pulley. — Motion on 
Inclined Planes. 
, notions about a fixed Center, or Axis. 
— Centers cf Osculation and Per- 
cussion. — Simple and Compound 
Pendulums. — Center of Gyration, 
and the Principles of Rotation. — 
Central Forces, — Inquiries connected 
-with Rotation End Central Forces. 
. Percussion or Collision of Bodies in 
Motion. 

i'. On the Mechanical Powers. — Levers. 
— Wheel and Axle. — Pulley. — In- 
clined Plane. — Wedge and Screw. 



CHAPTER I v.— Hydrostatics. 

1. General Definitions. 

2. Pressure and Equilibrium of Nos- 

ekstic Fluids. 

3. Floating Bodies. 

4. Specific Gravities. 

5. On Capillary Attraction, 

CHAPTER Y.— ErDKODrKAJiicSv 

1. Motion and Effluence of Liquids. 

2. Motion of Water in Conduit Pipes 

and Open Canals, over Weirs, o:c. — 
Yeiocities of Rivers. 

3. Contrirances to Measure the Velocity 

of Running Waters. 



CHAPTER YI.— Pketjmatics. 



1. Weight and Equilibrium of Air and 

Elastic Fluids. 

2. Machines for Raising Water by the 

Pressure of the Atmosphere. 

3. Force of the Wind. 

CHAPTER YII.— Mechanical Agents. 

1. Water as a Mechanical Agent. 

2. Air as a Mechanical Agent. — Cou- 

lomb's Experiments, 

3. Mechanical Agents depending upon 

Heat. The Steam Engine.— Table 
of Pressure and Temperature of 
Steam, — General Description of the 
Mode of Action of the Steam Engine. 
— Theory of the Steam Engine, — •' 
Description of the Tarioua kinds of 



MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN, 



Engines, and the Formulge for calcu- j 

lating their Power. — Practical appli- j 

cation of the foregoing Formulas. j 

4. Animal Strength as a Mechanical Agent, I 

CHAPTER VIII.— Stkekgth op 
Materials, 

1. Eesults of Experiments, and Principles 

upon which they should be practically 
applied, 

2. Strength of Materials to Resist Tensile 

and Crushing Strains. — Strength of 
Columns. 



Sect. 

3. Elasticity and Elongation of Bodies 

subjected to a Crushing or Tensile 
Strain. 

4, On the Strength of Materials subjecte 

to a Transverse Strain. — Longi 
tudinal form of Beam of uniform 
Strength. — Transverse Strength of 
other Materials than Cast Iron.^ — 
The Strength of Beams according to 
the manner in which the Load is 
distributed. 

5. Elasticity of Bodies subjected te a 

Transverse Strain, 

6, Strength of Materials to resist Torsioii. 



APPENDIX 

I. Table of Logarithmic Differences, 
II. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 1 to 100. 

III. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 100 to 10,000. 

IV. Table of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. 

V. Table of Useful Factors, extending to several places of Decimals. 
VI. Table of various Useful Numbers, with their Logarithms. 

VII. A Table of the Diameters, Areas, and Circumferences of Circles and also the 
sides of Equal Squares. 
VIII, Table of the Relations of the Arc, Abscissa, Ordinate and Subnormal, in the 
Catenary. 
IX. Tables of the Lengths and Vibrations of Pendulums. 
X. Table of Specific Gravities. 

XL Table of Weight of Materials frequently employed in Construction, 
XII. Principles of Chronometers. 
ZIII. Select Mechanical Expedients. 

XIV, Observations on the Effect of Old London Bridge on the Tides, &c. 
XV. Professor Parish on Isometrical Perspective. 



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A SYNOPSIS OF PEACTICAL PHILOSOPHY, 

alphabetically arranged, containing a gi-eat variety of Theorems, Formulae, 
and Tables, from the most accurate and recent authorities in varioTJS brancl'JSS 
of ilatberaatics and Natural Philosophy : with Tables of Logarithms, 

Sy the Rev, JOHN CARR, M,A,, late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 



John Weale's Catalogue of his Publications of Works on Architecture , 
Civil, Mechanical, Military, and Naval Engineering, gratis ; if by post, Id. 



HINTS 



YOUNG ARCHITECTS; 



COHPRISINQ 

ADVICE TO THOSE WHO, WHILE YET AT SCHOOL AEE DESTINED 
TO THE PEOFESSION; 

SUCH AS, HAYING PASSED THEIR PUPILAGE, AEE ABOUT TO TRAVEL 

AND TO THOSE WHO, HAYING COMPLETED THEIR EDUCATION, 
ARE ABOUT TO PRACTISE: 

TOGETHER WITH 

A MODEL SPECIFICATION: 

INVOLVING A GREAT VARIETY OF INSTRUCTIVE AND SUGGESTIVE MATTER 
CALCULATED TO FACILITATE THEIR PRACTICAL OPERATIONS; 

AND TO DIRECT THEM IN THEIR CONDUCT, AS THE RESPONSIBLE 
AGENTS OP THEIR EMPLOYERS, 

AND AS THE RIGHTFUL JUDGES OF A CONTRACTOR'S DUTY. 

By GEOEaE WiaHTWICK, Architect. 





CONTEXTS : — 


Pi-eliminary Hints to Young Archi- 
tects on the Knowledge of 


Model Specification : 
Stone-cutting. 


Drawing. 
On Serving his Time. 
On TraveUing. 




■ , Grecian or Italian only. 

, Gothic only. 

Miscellaneous. 


His Plate on the Door. 
Orders, Plaa-drawing. 




Slating. 
Tilmg. 


On his Taste, Study of Interiors. 


Plaster and Cement- work. 


Interior Ari-angemeuts. 
Warming and Ventilating. 




Carpenters' Work. 
Joiners' Work. 


House Building, Stabling. 




Iron and ]\Ietal-work. 


Cottages and Villas. 
Model Specification : — 

General Clauses. 

Foundations. 

Well. 

Artificial Foundations. 




Plumbers' Work. 

Drainage. 

Well-digging. 

Artificial Levels, Concrete, 
Foundations, Piling and 
Planking, Paving, Vaulting. 


Brickwork. 

Rubble Masonry with 
Mingled. 


Brick 


Bell-hanging, Plumbing, auJ 
Building generally. 



hx One Large Volume Octavo, Eleven Hundred Pages, with numerous 
Engravings, price II. 8s., 



H. 



GENERAL TEXT BOOK, 



CONSTANT USE AND REFERENCE OP 

MCHITECTS, ENGINEEES. SUHYEYORS, SOLICITORS, 
AUCTIOIsHERS, LAND AGENTS, AND STEWARDS, 

W ALL THSIR SEVERAL AI?3 TARIED PSOnSSIOITAL OCCUPATIONS; 

AMD FOR THE 

ASSISTANCE AND GUIDANCE OF 
COUNTRY GENTLEMEM AND OTHERS 

EKGAGED IN THE 

TEANSFEE, MANAGEMENT, OE IMPEOVEMENT OF 
LANDED PEOPEETY: 

CONTAININa 

THECREIVIS, FORMULyE, RULES, AND TABLES 

a OBOMETRT, MENSURATION, AND TRIGONOIIETRT ; LAND MEASURING, SURVETING, 
A ND LEVELLING ; RAILWAY AND HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING ; TIMBER MEASUR- 
ING; THE VALUATION 0¥ ARTIFICERS' 'WORK, ESTATES, LEASEHOLDS, LIFEHOLDS, 
ANNUITIES, TILLAGES, FARMING STOCK, AND TENANT RIGHT ; THE ASSESSMENT 
OF PARISHES, RAILWAYS, GAS AND WATER WORKS; THE LAW OF DILAPIDA- 
TIONS AND NUISANCES, APPRAISEMENTS AND AUCTIONS, LANDLORD AK» 
TSNANT, AGREEMENTS AND LEASES. 

TOGETHER WITH EXAMPLES OP VILLAS AND COUNTRY HOUSES. 

BY EDV/ARD RYDE, 

Civil Engineer and Land Surveyor, Author of several Professional Worite. 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED SEVERAL CHAPTERS ON 

AGEICULTUEE AND LANDED PEOPEETY. 

BY PROFESSOR DONALDSON, 

Author of S€vcifil "Works on Agriculture. 



WORKS PUBLISHED BY WR. WEALE. 19 



CONTENTS. 

Chapter I.— Arithmetic, 1. Notation — 2. Proof of the Fix^st Pour 
Bules — 3. Vulgar Fractions — 4. Decimals — 5. Duodecimals — 6. Powers 
and Roots — 7. Properties of Numbers — 8. Logarithms and Mathe- 
matical Tables. 

IL — Plane and Solid Geometry, 1, Definitions— 2. Of Angles 
and Right Lines, and their Rectangles— 8, Of Triangles — L Of Quad- 
rilaterals and Polygons — 5. Of the Circle, and Inscribed and Circum- 
scribing Figures — 6. Of Planes and Solids — 7. Practical Geometry. 

III. — Mensuration, 1, Comparison of English and French Weights 
and Measures — 2. Mensuration of Superficies — 3. Mensuration of Solids. 

IV. — Teigongmetrt, 1. Definitions and Trigonometrical Formulse — 
2. General Propositions — 3, Solution of the Cases of Plane Triangles. 

V, — Conic Sections. 

VI. — Land Measuring. Including Table of Decimals of an Acre — 
Table of Land Measure, by dimensions taken in yards. 

VII. — Land Surveying, 1. Parish and Estate Surveying — 2, Trigo- 
nometrical Surveying — 3, Traverse Surveying— 4. Field Instruments, 
the Prismatic Compass ; the Box Sextant ; the Theodolite. 

VIII. — .Levelling, Levelling Instruments, the Spirit Level ; the Y 
IiBvel; Troughton's Level; Mr. Gravatt's Level; Levelling Staves — 
Examples in Levelling, 

IX. — Plotting, Embracing the Circular Protractor — ^The T Square 
and Semicircular Protractor — Plotting Sections, 

X. — Computation op Areas. The Pediometer — The Computing 
Scale — Computing Tables. 

XL — Copying Maps, Including a description of the Pentagrapli. 

XII. — Railway Surveying. 1. Exploration and Trial Levels; 
Standing Orders. — 2. Proceedings subsequent to the Passing of the Act; 
Tables for Setting out Curves ; Tables for Setting out Slopes ; Tables of 
Pvclative Gradients ; Specification of Works to be executed in the con- 
struction of a Railway ; Form of Tender. 

XIII, — Colonial Surveying. 

XIV. — Hydraulics in connection with Drainage, Sewerage, 
and Water Supply, — With Synopsis of Ryde's Hydraulic Tables — > 
r^pecifications, Iron Pipes and Castings ; Stone- Ware Drain Pipes ; Pipe 
Liaying; Reservoir. 

_ XV, — Timber Measuring. Including Timber Tables, Solid Measure, 
unequal Sided Timber ; Superficial Measure, 

XVI. — ^Artificers' Work, 1, Bricklayers' and Excavators' — 2. 
Slaters' — 3. Carpenters' and Joiners' — 4, Sawyers' — 5, Stonemasons'— 
6^ Plasterers' — 7. Ironmongers'— -8, Painters' — 9, Glaziers' — 10, Paper 
Hangers'. 

XVII. — Valuation of Estates. With Tables for the Purchasing of 
Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold Estates, Annmties, and Advowsons, 
and for Renewing Leases for Terms of Years certain and for Lives. 

XVIII, — Valuation or Tillages and Tenant Right. Witb 
Tables for Measuring and Valuing Hay Ricks. 



''{J WORKS PUBLISHED B\' MR. WE ALE. 



CONTENTS (continued) :— 

XIX. — Validation of Parisees. 

XX. — Builders' Prices. 1. Carpenters' and Joiners' — 2. Masons* — 
3. Bricklayers' — i. Plasterers' — 6. Ironmongers' — 6. Drainers' — 7. 
Plambers' — 8. Painters' — 9. Paper Hangers' and Decorators' — 10, 
Glaziers' — 11. Zinc Workers' — 12. Coppersmiths' — 13. Wireworkers'. 

XXI. — Dilapidations and Xuisances. 1. General Definitions — 2. 
Dilapidations by Tenants for Life and Years — 3. Ditto by Mortgagee or 
Mortgagor — 4. Ditto of Party Walls and Fences — 5. Ditto of Highways 
and Bridges — G. K'uisances. 

XXII. — The Law relating to Appraisers and Auctioneers. 1, 
The Law relating to Appraisements — 2. The Law of Auction. 

XXIIL — Landlord and Tenant. 1. Agreements and Leases — 2. 
Notice to Quit — 3. Distress — 4. Recovery of Possession. 

XXIV. — Tables. Of Natural Sines and Cosines — For Reducing 
Links into Feet — Decimals of a Pound Sterling. 

XXV. — Stamp Laws. — Stamp Duties — Customs* Duties. 



EXAMPLES OF VILLAS AND COUNTRY HOUSES. 



01^ LANDED PEOPEETY, By Peofessoe Donaldson. 

L — Landlord and Tenant — their Position and Connefctions. 

II. — Lease of Land, Conditions, and Restrictions; Choice of Tenant 
and Assignation of the Deed. 

III. — Cultivation of Land, and Rotation of Crops. 

IV. — Buildings necessary on Cultivated Lands — Dwelling Houses, 
Farmeries, and Cottages for Labourers. 

V. — Laying-out Farms, Roads, Fences, and Gates. 

VI. — Plantations — Young and old Timber. 

VII. — Meadows and Embankments, Beds of Rivers, Water Courses, 
and Flooded Grounds. 

VIII. — Land Draining, Open and. Covered, — Plan, Execution, and 
zli-rangement between Landlord and Tenant. 

IX. — Minerals — Working and Value. 

X. — Expenses of an Estate — Regulations of Disbursements— and 
Relation of the appropriate Expenditures. 

XL — Valuation of Landed Property ; of the Soil, ofHouses, of Woods, 
of Minerals, of Manorial Rights, of Royalties, and of Fee Fann Rents. 

XII. — Land Steward and Farm Bailiff : Qualifications and Duties. 

XIII. — Manor Bailiff, Woodreve, Gardener, and Gamekeeper — their 
Position and Duties. 

XIV.— Fixed days of Audit— Half- Yearly Payments of Rents — Form 
of iSTotices, Receipts, and of Cash Books, General Map of Estates, and of 
fcaoii separate Farm — Concluding Observations. 



STONE, TIMBER, AND IRON BRIDGES. 



21 



BRIDGES. 

45. 

In 4 vols, royal 8vo, illustrated by 138 engravings and 92 wood-cuts, bound 
in 3 vols, half-morocco, price £ 4. 10*. 

THE THEORY, PRACTICE, AND ARCHITECTURE 

OF 

BRIDGES OF STONE, IRON, TIMBER, AND WIRE; 

WITH EXAMPLES ON THE PRINCIPLE OF SUSPENSION. 



DIVISIONS or THE WOKK. 

Theory of Bridges. By James Hann, King's College, London. 

General Principles of ' Construction, &c. Translated from Gauthey. 

Theory of the Arch, &c. By Professor Moseley. 

Papers on Foundations. By T. Hughes, C.E. 

Account of Hutcheson Bridge, Glasgow, with Specification. By 

the late Robert Stevenson, C.E. 
Mathematical Principles of Dredge's Suspension Bridge. 
Essay and Treatises on the Practice and Architecture of Bridges. 

By William Hosking, F.S.A., Arch*, and C.E. 
Specification of Chester Dee Bridge. 
Practical Description of the Timber Bp^idges, &c., on the Utica and 

Syracuse Railroad, U. S. By B. F. Isherwood, C. E., New York. 
Description of the Plates. — General Index, &c., &c., &c. 

list of plates. 



1. Centering of Ballater bridge across the 

river Dee, Aberdeenshire. 

2. Town's American timber bridge. 

3. Do., sections. 

4. Do. do. 

5. Ladykirk and Norham timber bridge 

over the Tweed, by J. Blackmore. 

6. Timber bridge over the Clyde at Glas- 

gow, by Robert Stevenson. 

7. Elevation of arch of do. 

8. Transverse section of do. 

9. Section of foot-path on do., &c. 

10. Occupation bridge over the Calder and 

Hebble Na-sagation, by W. Bull. 

11. Newcastle, North Shields, and Tyne- 

mouth railway viaduct across Wil- 
lington Dean, plans and elevations. 

12. Do., do. 

13. Do., sections. 

14. Ditto across Ouse Burn Dean, plan and 

elevation. 

15. Do., do. 

l(j, Isometrical view of the upper wooden 
bridge at Elysville over the Patapsco, 
on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 

17. Elevation and plan of do. 

18. Sections of do. 

19. Longitudinal section under the central 

archway of Old London bridge, show- 
ing the sunk weir recommended by 
Mr. Smeaton to liold the water up for 



the benefit of the water-works, &c., in 
1763 ; sections of the same. 

20. Plan and elevation of timber bridge for 

Westminster, as designed by Wes- 
ley. 

21. Half- elevation of ditto for Westminster, 

as designed by James King. 

22. Westminster timber bridge adapted to 

the stone piers, by C. Labelye. 

23. One of the river ribs of the centre on 

which the middle arch of Westminster 
bridge was turned, extending 76 feet, 
designed and executed by JamesKing. 

24. Long elevation and plan of Westminster 

bridge. 

25. Elevation of the foot bridge over the 

Whitadder, at Abbey St. Bathen's. 

26. Weymouth bridge, elevation and plan. 

27. Very long elevation of Hutcheson bridge, 

Glasgow, by Robert Stevenson. 

28. Longitudinal section of ditto, showing 

the progress of the works in 1832. 

29. Cross section of do., showing the build- 

ing ajinaratus and centre frames. 
SO. Cross section of Hutcheson bridge. 

31. Plan of southern abutment of do. 

32. Section of abutments of do. 

33. Toil-houses of do. 

34. Bridge of the Schuylkill at Market 

Street, Philadelphia." 

35. Details of do. 



IRON, STONE, TIMBER, AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 



52a 
53. 



64a, 
65. 



67. 



Plan of the wood- work in the starling of 
the small piers of Chepstow bridge. 

Longitudinal section through one of the 
large piers. 

Details of Chepstow bridge. 

Plan, elevation, and sections of the 
central arch of London bridge. 

London and Croydon railway bridge 
on road from Croydon to Sydenham, 
plans, elevations, and sections. 

London and Croydon railway bridge on 
road from Norwood to Bromley, do. 

London and Croydon railway bridge at 
Sydenham, do. 

Elevation of the Victoria bridge over 
the valley of the river Wear, on the 
Durham junction railway. 

Elevation of Chepstow bridge. 

Piling and timber foundations of one 
of the large piers of Chepstow bridge. 

Plan of pier, elevation of do. 

Enlarged section of one of the piers. 

Newcastle and Carlisle railway bridge, 

, over the river Tyne at Scotswood, by 
John Blackmore, plan and elevation. 

50. Sections and details of do. 

Elevation and plan of bridge over the 
Eden at Carlisle, by Sir R. Smirke. 

Elevation of one of the arches, with a 
pier, and the north abutment. 

. The centering used for the arches of do. 

Plan and elevation of the bridge erected 
over the Thames at Staines. 

Elevation and plans of the Wellesley 
bridge at Limerick. 

Elevation of pier and half- arch, with 
longitudinal section, plan and section 
of baluster, transverse section through 
the crown and spandril. 

Bridge of Jena, plan and elevation. 

Do., elevation of one of the land arches, 
with section of towing-path and re- 
taining wall, transverse section of the 
bridge at the springing of an arch, 
plan of do., transverse section of the 
bridge through the centre of one of 
the land arches, plan of the abutments, 
retaining walls, &c. 

Elevation of the Devil's bridge over 
the Serchio, near Lucca, Italy ; plan, 
elevation, and cross section. 

Bridge across the river Forth at Stirling, 
by R. Stevenson, elevation. 

Longitudinal section of the same. 

Timber bridge on the Utica and Syra- 
cuse Railway, United States, spans of 
40 and 30 feet. 

Do., span of 60 feet. 

Do., elevation, plan and cross section, 
span of 88 feet. 

. Do., isometrical projection. 

Do., plan, elevation, and cross section, 
span of 84 feet. 

, Timber bridge, span of 82 feet. 

Abutment for a bridge of 82 feet span 
over the Oneida Creek. 

Trestle bridge, Oneida Creek Valley, 
span of 29 feet. 

Bo., elevation of span of 100 feet. 



67a. Do., isometrical projection of truss, 
connection of floor beams, and cross 
section. 

6S. Trestle bridge, Onondago Creek Vallev^ 
span of 29 feet. 

6g. A great variety of details of joinery. 

69a. Pile-driving machine. 

70. Isometrical projections. 

70a. Isometrical projections of iron plate. 

706. Do. 

70c. Do. 

70^:. Do. 

70e. Do. 

70/. Do., culverts. 

70g'. Viaduct under Erie canal. 

71. Remains of the bridge over the Adda, 

at Trezzo, the Milanese. 

72. Ely iron bridge, near cathedral. 

73. Details of do. 

74. Do. 

75. Do. 

76. Haddlesey bridge, over the Aire, YorL- 

shire, details of the iron- work. 

77. Do. 

78. Do. 

79. Do. 

80. Do., sections of structure. 

81. Do., plan, iron balustrades &c. 

82. Do., details. 
83. 
84. 



Do., elevation. 

London and Blackwall Railway brid{:3 
over the Lea, elevation and plan. 

85. Do., sections and details. 

86. Do., sections, enlarged view of railing. 

87. Isometrical projection of the suspensica 

bridge at Balloch ferry, constructed oi7 
Mr. Dredge's principle. 

88. Perronet's design for the bridge over the 

Seine at Melun, sections, &c. 
83. Brighton chain pier, portions of con- 
structive detail. 

90. Wreck of do. in Oct. 1833. 

91. Do. 

92. Longitudinal and transverse sections 

cast-iron swing bridge. 

93. Longitudinal section and transverse d; 

plan of turning-plate, roller frame, ar. . 

bed-plate of cast-iron swing bridge. 
Elevation and plan of cast-iron svpi^^ 

bridge, Plymouth. 
Gerrard's Hostel bridge, Cambridge, 

erected by the Butterley Company, (W. 

C. Mylne,) elevation and plan. 
Do., sections and details of do. 
Do., transverse section of do. 
Fribourg suspension bridge, general 

elevation, with a section of the valley 

of the Sarine and of the mooring 

shafts, &c. ; general plan, ends of 

main piers, with approaches enlarged, 

&c. 
99. Do., sections and details of do. 

100. 100a. Do. do. 

101. Professor Moseley's diagrams of the 

arch. 

102. Do. 

103. Do. 

104. Robert Stevenson's elevation of a chain 

bridge upon the catenarian principle. 



94. 



97. 



JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WOEKS 



In 1 vol. 4to., with 74 plates, extra cloth boards and lettered, price 2l3., 

THE CAEPENTEE^S NEW" GUIDE : 

OR, 

THE EOOK OP LINES EOS CAEPENTEES, 

GEOMETEICALLT EXPLAINED ; 

C0MPRISIj!T(3 all THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES ESSENTIAL FOR AOQ.TJIMK<J A 

SNOWLEDGE OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CARPENTRY. 

A NEW EDITION, 

FOUNDED ON THAT OF THE LATE PETEK NICHOLSON'S STANDABD WORK; 

REVISED BY 

ARTHUR ASHPITEL, Architect, F.S.A., F.LB.A. 

TOGETHER WITH 

PExiCTICAL EULES ON DEAWING, 

By GEORGE PYNE, of Oxford, Artist. 
The Work is divided in Three Divisions, with Seventy-four Illustrative Plates, as follows 
Division A. — Practical Geometry, and of 
Carpentry, explaining the principles in 



all its t)arts, by the late Peter Nicholson. 
(Pages' 1 to SO— Plates 1 to 60.) 
Division B.— Practical MathematicSjMensu 



ration, &c., by Arthur Ashpitel, Arclii- 
tect. (Pages 1 to S2.) 
Division C. — Practical Rules on Drawing, 
for the Operative Builder and Touug 
Student in Architecture. (Pages i to 80 
—Plates 1 to 14.) 



With 72 Engi-avingg, new, improved, and extended edition, price 21 12s. 6d., 
extra large 4to, extra cloth boards and lettered, 

THE PEACTICAL EAILWAY ENGINEEE : 

EXAMPLES OF THE MECHANICAL AND ENGINEBRINa OPERATIONS AND STRUOIUBES 
COMBINED IN THE MAKING OF A RAILWAY. 



-Curves, gradients, gauge, and 



Section I 
slopes. 

Section II. — Survey and levels for a railway 
— ^Parliamentary plan and section— Limits 
of deviation — Setting out the line — Work- 
ing plans and sections — Computing quan- 
tities — Opening the ground. 

Section III. — Eartliworks, cuttings, em- 
bankments, and drains. 



By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.B. 

contents. 



-Retaining walls, bridges, tun- 



1. Cuttings. 

2, 3, 4. Earthworks, excavating. 
6. Ditto, embanking. 

6. Ditto, waggons. 

7. Drains under bridges. 

8. Brick and. stone culverts. 

9. Paved crossings. 

10. Railway bridges, diagram. 

11, 12, 13, 14. Bridges, brick and stone. 
15, 16. Ditto, iron. 
17, 18, 19, 20, 21. Ditto, timber. 

22. Centers for bridges. 

23, 24, 25, 26, 27. *' Pont de Montlouis." 

28. " Pont du Cher." 

29. Suspension bridge. 
:30. Box-girder bridge. 

31. Trestle bridge and Chepstow bridge. 

32. Details of Chepstow bridge. 

33. Creosoting, screw-piUng, &c. 
i:34. Permanent way and rails. 
35. Ditto, chaii-3. 
56. Ditto, tish-joints, &c. 
J7. Ditto, fish-joint chairs. 
58, 39, Ditto, cast-iron sleepers, &o. 
10, Ditto, Stephenson's, Bnmers.Hemans'g, 

Macneill's, and Dockray'a. 
H. Ditto, crossings. 



Section IV.' 
nels, &c. 

Section V.— Permanent way and construc- 
tion. 

Section VI. — Stations, &c. 

Section VII. — Rolling stock — Carriages, 
trucks, wheels, and axles — Brakes, and 
details — Locomotive engines and tenders. 

SectionVIII. — Signalsand electric telegraph. 

LIST OF plates. 

42. Ditto ditto, details. 

43. Ditto, spring-crossings, &c. 

44. Ditto, turn-table. 

45. 46. Terminal station. 
47, 4S, 49. Stations. 

50. Goods stations. 

51. Polygonal engine-house. 

52. Engine-house. 
63. Watering apparatus. — (A). Tanks. 

54. Ditto, (B.) Details of pumps. 

55. Ditto, (C.) Details of engines. 

56. Ditto, (D.) Cranes. 

57. Hoisting machineiy. 

58. Ditto, details. 

59. Traversing platform. 

60. Ditto, details. 

61. Station-roof at King's Grose. 

62. Ditto, Liverpool. 

63. Ditto, Birmingham. 

64. 65. Railway carriages. 

66. Ditto, details. 

67, 68. Railwa / trucks and wheeliS. 

69. Iron and < covered waggons. 

70. Details of brakes. 

71. Wheels and details. 

72. Portrait. 



24 



JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WORKS, ^y^ / ^ 

^ I 

lu 1 Vol. 4to, extra clotb, boards and lettered, 67 Engravings, 21*., 

DESIGNS AND EXAMPLES OF COTTAGES, 
VILLAS, AND COUNTRY HOUSES ; I 

BEING THE STUDIES OP SE\T:RAL EMINENT ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS 

COiJSISTING OF PLANS, ELEVATIONS, ANn PERSPECTIVE VIEWS, WITH 
APPKOXIMATE ESTIilATES OF THE COST OF EACH. 



In imperial 8vo., "witli 13 large folding Plates, extra cloth, boards, price 12s., 

A PHACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY 
ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 

By GEORGE WATSON BUCK, M.Iust. C.E. 

TOGETHER TYIIU A 

DESCRIPTION TO DIAGRAMS FOR FACILI- 
TATING THE CONSTRUCTION OP 
OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 

By W. H. barlow, C.E., 
Second Edition, corrected and improved. 



In 1 vol. 4to., 50 plates, -with, dimensions, extra cloth boards, price 21s., 

EXAMPLES EOS 
BUILDERS, CARPENTERS, AND JOINERS; 

EillNG ■WELL-SELECTED ILLUSTRATIONS OF EECEXT MODERN ART AND CONSTRUCIIO 



1. Geometrical Scaircase. 



Construction of the Wooden Columns 

in King's College. 
Details of do. 
Plan and Elevation of the Athenaeum 

Club House. 
Do. do. Arthur's Club, St. James' 

Street. 
Do. do. details. 
Do. do. 

Design for Verandah. 
Details of do. 
Design for Verandah. 
Details of do. 
Design for Verandah. 
Details of do. 

Elevation of a Group of New Houses. 
Joinery of Doors. 
Base, Surbase, and Dado. 
Plan and Elevation of Doors. 
Sections do. do. 

Section of the framing or frontispiece 

of an entablature of a Shop li-oni. 
Roof at Charter House. 

Gierke nwell Church. 



OF PLATES. 

26. Elizabethan terminations of a Sh 

front entablature. 

27. Joineiy at Windsor Castle. 
2S. 

30. „ 
31. 

32. Gate at the town entrance to i 

Royal Mews, Windsor. 

33. Joinery at the Duke of Sutherland's 

Lilleshall. 

34. Muliions of Windows, do. 

35. Plan and Elevation of a Public-hou/ 

36. Exeter Hall roof. 
o7. Country mansion. 
3S. Italian Designs. 

40. ," 

■il. Longitudinal Section, do. 

42. Windows, Doors, &c. do. 
I 43. Windows, &c. do. 

! 44. Grand Staircase, do. 

I 45. An Elegant Italian fa$ade. 

46. Penton Meusey Church, Bdl Turre 
1 47. Plan and South Elevation of do. 
: 4S. West Elevation of do. 

49. Elevations, with h.orizontal and vci 

sections of the Bell Turret, clu. 

50. Transvei-se section of do. jf 



'b/lp'3? 



J 



